






III?!;': !| '■!■.>';''■ 



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Class _J:J 11 
\ 
Book__.S^l 

Copyright N" 



COPVRIGHT DEPOSIT. 






"i^To^ 



BARNES'S SCHOOL HISTORY 

OP THE 

UNITED STATES 



BEING A REVISION OF 
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



BY 

JOEL DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., F.G.S. 

AND 

ESTHER BAKER STEELE, Lit.D 




NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



'/ 



Copyright, 1<.I()3, \i)V\ by 
American Book Company 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, Loudou 



B. Hist. U. S. 
w. p. 31 



OCI.A347212 

7u / 



PREFACE 

The wide and constant use which has been accorded to Barnes's 
Brief History of the United States, for more than thirty years and 
in all parts of the country, proves that it possesses in an eminent 
degree those qualities of style and arrangement which adapt a 
school text-book for practical class work and make it popular as 
a teaching tool. 

But since it was published the acts of a new generation have 
added momentous chapters to the story of our national life. 
Within this period the industrial and financial center of the world 
has crossed the Atlantic to our shores, and the United States has 
attained acknowledged preeminence among the world powers of 
the earth. Within this period, too, there has been a gradual but 
constant shifting of the point of view from which the history of 
a country is regarded, and of the methods employed m teaching 
it. Descriptions of battles and of the movements of armies 
have come to be considered of less importance, and the social con- 
dition and industries of the people of far greater importance, than 
they formerly were ; and even in the grammar school the pupil 
is expected to pursue a longer or shorter course of collateral 
reading in history outside of his text-book. 

In order that these modified views of history and the method of 
teaching it might be incorporated into the Barnes's History, the 
thorough revision resulting in the present volume was under- 
taken. 

In this revision a consistent effort has been made to retain 
those features of the older book which gave it its extraordinary 
popularity: its main division into epochs; its topical arrange- 
ment ; its interesting footnotes containing collateral facts, minor 

5 



6 PREFACE 

events, and brief biographies; and, most important of all, the 
fascinating literary style of Dr. Steele. Indeed, his language has 
been retained throughout the greater portion of the book, and in 
all cases where it conformed to the latest and best historical au- 
thorities, witli which the entire work has been rigorously com- 
pared. In the present volume, however, the treatment of battles 
has been somewhat curtailed and greater prominence has been 
given to the life of the people and to the wonderful development 
of our industries. Carefully selected references for a brief course 
of collateral reading have been inserted at frequent intervals 
throughout the book, and in the appendix is given a classified 
list of works from which further selections may be made as de- 
sired. New maps and pictures have been prepared and placed in 
close connection with the text which they illustrate. 

The words which Dr. Steele used in 1871, in giving to the 
public the original edition of his history, aj)ply with equal force 
to the present revision : 

'' This work is offered to American youth in the confident 
belief that as they study the wonderful history of their native 
land they will learn to prize their birthright more highly, and 
treasure it more carefully. Their pati'iotism must be kindled 
when they come to see how slowly, yet how gloriously, this tree 
of liberty has grown, what storms have wrenched its boughs, 
what sweat of toil and blood lias moistened its roots, what eager 
eyes have watched every out-springing bud, what brave hearts 
have defended it, loving it even unto death. A heritage thus 
sanctified by the heroism and devotion of the fathers can not but 
elicit the choicest care and tenderest love of the sons." 

Esther Baker Steele. 

Elmira, N. Y., February, 1903. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Introduction 

The Indians 9 

The Northmen 15 

Epochsof American History ... 16 

Epoch I. Early Discoveries and Ex- 
plorations 

Europe in the Fifteenth Century' . 19 

Columbus 21 

How America was Named .... 26 

The Cahots . 27 

Spanish Explorations 29 

French Explorations Hi 

English Explorations 40 

Dutch Explorations ...... 46 

Conflicting Claims 46 

Epoch II. Development of the Eng- 
lish Colonies 

Virginia 49 

Massachusetts 57 

Maine and New Hampshire ... 66 

Connecticut 67 

Rhode Island 70 

New York 71 

New Jersey 75 

Pennsylvania and Delaware ... 76 

Maryland 79 

The Carolinas 80 

Georgia 84 

Intercolonial Wars 86 

Colonial Society 102 

Colonial Industries 114 

Epoch III. The REvm.cTioNARr War 

Causes 119 

Events of 1775 ........ 124 

Events of 1776 130 

Events of 1777 136 



PAGE 

Events of 1778 143 

Events of 1779 147 

Events of 1780 150 

Events of 1781 156 

Results of the War 160 

The Constitution 164 

Epoch IV. Development of the 
States (to 1861) 
Washington's Administration . . . 169 

Adams's Administration 175 

Jefferson's Administration .... 176 
Madison's Acffiiinisti'ation .... 183 

War of 1812 185 

Monroe's Administration .... 196 
John Quincy Adams's Administra- 
tion 201 

Jackson's Administration .... 203 
Van Buren's Administration . . .208 
Harrison and Tyler's Administra- 
tion 210 

James K. Polk's Administratioc . 215 

War with Mexico 215 

Taylor and Fillmore's Administra- 
tion 223 

Pierce's Administration 225 

Buchanan's Administration . . . 230 
Society before the Civil War . . .235 

Industrial History 238 

New States 244 

Epoch V, The Civil War. Lincoln's 
Administration 

Events of 1861 249 

Events of 1862 , . 260 

Events of 186:! 279 

Events of 1864 290 

Events of 1865 304 

New States 309 



8 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Epoch VI. Development of the Na- 
tion (since 1865) 
Johnson's Administration . . . .312 

Grant's Administration 317 

Hayes's Administration 324 

(Jarficld and Arthur's Administra- 
tion 320 

Clov(>land'H First Administration . 328 
Harrison's Admiiiisti'atiou . . . .331 
Clovchmd's Second .\dniiuistratiou 333 
McKiuley's Administration . . .339 

Tlie War with Spain 341 

Industrial History 353 

New States 359 



PAGE 

Progress in Civilization 360 

Ree<'nt Events $69 



Appendix 

Chrooolof^ical Summary . . . i 

References for Readintr . . . ix 

Declaration of Indeiiciidence . xi 

Constitution of the United States xiv 

(Questions for Class Use . . . xxviii 

Historic il Recreations . . . . xli 

Table of States xlvi 

Table of Presidents xlviii 

Index xlix 



COLORED MAPS 



Eastern North America, 1754 ... 02 

Ri-itish Territory, 1764 101 

Northern Colonies during the Revo- 
lution i:!2 

Southern Colonies duriug the Revo- 
lution 1.52 

The United States, about 1790 . . 162 
The United States, 1805 179 



The United States, 1824 . . . 198, 199 
The United States, 18,->0 . . . 226, 227 
The United States, 1801 . . . 252, 253 
The States of the Union . . . 334, 335 
The United States and its Outlying 

Possessions 349 

Territorial Development of the 

United States Z61 



A SCHOOL HISTOEY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 



INTRODUCTION 

The Indians. — A few hundred years ago there were no 
white men in our country. Nearly all the land was with- 
out inhabitants, but scattered about here and there were 
villages or groups of rude dwellings occupied by Indians. 
In what is now the main part of the United States there 
were at that time fewer people than there are to-day in 
the single city of St. Louis. 

Indians had lived in America for no one knows how 
long — for many centuries at least. They were probably 
descended from the same people as the Chinese and other 
natives of eastern Asia; but where that people lived, and 
when, are alike unknown. It may be that America was 
first settled in that remote age when the Arctic regions 
were warmer than now, and when, as geology teaches, 
this continent was connected by land both with Asia 
and with Europe. At a later period, small parties may 
have crossed Bering Strait, or vessels may have been 
driven by winds and currents across the Pacific Ocean, 
their crews being thankful to escape a watery grave by 
settling a new country. 

American Antiquities. — The Indians of Mexico, Central 
America, and especially Peru, had advanced almost to a 

9 



10 INTRODUCTION 

state of civilization; and we find there the ruins of their 
ancient cities, stone temples, and paved roads. 

Within the limits of our own country the Indians were 
in a condition of savagery or barbarism. The most 
famous monuments of the prehistoric inhabitants of the 
country are mounds of earth found in vast numbers in the 
eastern half of the Mississippi vallej'. There are more 
than 10,000 of them in Ohio alone. They are of many 
shapes — circular, square, and irregular embankments, 
cones, pyramids, and figures of gigantic animals j* and 
are of all sizes up to several acres in area, or several hun- 
dred or thousand feet in length. On some of them were 
found growing forest trees of the largest size. The mounds 
were built by the Indians or their ancestors, for a variety 
of purposes : some were used for military defense, some 
served as burial mounds, some marked the sites of huts or 
villages, and some were designed for religious purposes. 
Buried in the mounds, often with the bodies of the dead, 
there have been found many articles used by the Indians, 
including shells, pottery, rude textiles, some implements 
of copper that was dug from old pits still to be seen in 
the Lake Superior I'egion, and, in the later mounds, beads 
which must have been received from the early visitors to 
America from Europe. 

In the southwest of our country there are ruins of cliff 
dwellings and pueblos (pweb'loz), and some pueblos that are 
still occupied. A pueblo was a vast apartment house, built 
of stone or of sun-dried clay, large enough for a whole vil- 
lage of perhaps several thousand people. The pueblos 
were several stories high, and their rooms were entered 

' An embanlniicnt in Adams County, Ohio, roprcsontH very accurately a sorpent 
1000 feet long. Its body winds with graceful curves, and in its widely extended jawe 
lies a figure which tbe animal seems about to swallow. 



THE INDIANS 



11 



through holes in the roof, which was reached by ladders. 
SiK'li buildings were designed for protection against sud- 



I i*.** 





m ■ ■ 



-ii^> ^ 

■A^- 



A PUEBLO. 



den attacks by savage foes. The Pueblo Indians irrigated 
and tilled the soil, made good pottery, and wove cloth. 

Tribes. — The Indians of our country were divided into 
several hundred tribes, speaking different languages or 
dialects, and having different customs. In general, each 
tribe lived iu a village or group of villages by itself. Ac- 
cording to their languages, the different tribes have been 
arranged in about fifty distinct groups, each group includ- 
ing the tribes of a common origin. Five of the most 
important groups are the Iroquoi'an, Algon'quian, Musk- 
ho'gean, Siouan (soo'an), and Shosho'nean. Of the In- 
dians now living in the United States more than half 
belong to these five groups. 



12 INTRODUCTION 

The Iroquoian tribes lived iu a large region surround- 
ing Lakes Erie and Ontario, and iu a smaller district in 
the southern Appalachian Mountains. Among the tribes 
of this group which we shall meet later in the history of 
our country are the five Iroquois tribes,' the Tuscaro'ras, 
and the Cherokees'. 

The Algonquian tribes were very numerous. Their ter- 
ritory surrounded the northern Iroquoian region, and ex- 
tended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississii)pi River 
in the region of the Ohio valley and the Great Lakes, 

The Muskhogean tribes lived in the South, east of the 
Mississippi Eivor and north of the Gulf of Mexico. They 
were sun worshipers, and were better skilled in agricul- 
ture than most other Indians. 

The Siouan tribes occupied the western side of the 
Mississippi basin. Some of them were among the most 
warlike of all Indians. 

The Shoshonean tribes occupied the greater part of 
the Rocky Mountain highland and the southern part of 
the Great Plains. 

Indian Characteristics Arts and Inventions. — The 

Indian built no cities, no ships, no churches, no school- 
houses. In general he constructed only temporary wig- 
wams of bark or skins, and canoes of birch bark. He 
made neither roads nor bridges, but followed footpaths 
through the forest, and swam the streams. His highest 
art was expended in a simple bow and arrow. 

Progress and Government. — He made no advancement, 

1 The Flvo Nations of Iroquois (Sen'ecas, Cayu'gas, Ononda'gas, Oiici'das, and Mo'- 
Lawks) formed a confederacy styled the "Lonj: House," because these Indians dwelt 
in bark houses often 2r>0 feet in length and ao feet wide, each holdinf? twenty or 
thirty families. This leapue formed, in fact, a loosely organized reimhlic, with a con- 
gress of the chiefs or sachems of the ditt'erent tribes. Fierce, bloodthir.sty, and fond 
of conquest, the Iroquois might perhaps have subdued the continent if the white 
man had not come. Early travelers called them the Romaus of the New World. 



THE INDIANS 



13 



but each son emulated the prowess of his father in the 
hunt and the fight. The hunting ground and the battle- 
field embraced everything of real honor or value. So 
the son was educated to throw the tomahawk, shoot the 
arrow, and catch fish with the spear. He knew nothing 
of books, paper, writing, or history. The Indian respected 
the chiefs or wise men of his tribe, but they governed by 
influence rather than by authority. Ev^en when the tribal 
council decided to make war, every Indian was free to 
fight or not, as he chose. 

Domestic Life. — The Indian had neither cow nor beast 
of burden. He regarded all labor as degrading and fit. 
only for women. His squaw, therefore, built his wigwam, 




INDIAN LIFE. 



cut his wood, and carried his burdens when he journeyed. 
While he hunted or fished, she cleared the land for his 
corn by burning down the trees, scratched the ground 



14 INTRODUCTION 

with a crooked stick or dug it with a clam shell, dressed 
skins for his clothing, and prepared his food. The leav- 
ings of her lord's feast sufficed for her, and the coldest 
place in the wigwam was hers. 

Disposition. — In war the Indian was brave and alert, 
but cruel and revengeful, prefei-ring treachery and cun- 
ning to open battle. At home he was lazj^, improvident, 
and an inveterate gaml)ler. He deliglited in finery and 
trinkets, and decked his unclean person with paint and 
feathers. His grave and haughty demeanor repelled the 
stranger ; but he was grateful for favors, and his wigwam 
always stood hospitably open to the poorest and meanest 
of his tribe. 

Endurance. — He could endure great fatigue, and in 
his expeditions often lay without shelter in the severest 
weather. It was his glory to bear the most horrible tor- 
tures without a sign of suffering. 

Religion. — If he had any ideas of a Supreme Being, 
they were vague and degraded. His dream of a heaven 
was of happy hunting grounds or of gay feasts. He wor- 
shiped no idols, but peo;.)led all nature with spirits, 
which dwelt not only in birds, beasts, and reptiles, but 
also in lakes, rivers, and w iterfalls. As he believed these 
had power to help or liarn men, he lived in constant fear 
of offending them. He apologized, therefore, to the ani- 
mals he killed, and made solemn promises to fishes that 
their bones should be respected. He placed great stress 
on dreams, and his camp swarmed with sorcerers and for- 
tune tellers. 

The Indian of the Prci^ent. — Sucli was the ludian three 
hundred years ago, aiid such is many an Indian to-day. 
He has opposed the encroachments of the settler, and the 
building of railroads. But he could not stop the tide of 



THE INDIANS 15 

iininigration. Almost all the Indians in this country now 
have been gathered into tracts of land called reservations. 




mmm 





5 f S 

1^ ry 


'^P 







INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.' 

Many of them are supported in partial idleness by our 
government, in fulfillment of treaties; but some of the 
tribes have become civilized and are prosperous — they 
have good houses and schools, and live much like the 
white men. It is earnestly to be hoped that all the red 
men may yet be Christianized and taught the arts of in- 
dustry and peace. 

The Northmen (descendants of the early inhabitants of 
Norway and Sweden) were probably the first Europeans 
to set foot on the American continent. Iceland was 
settled by Northmen more than a thousand years ago; 
and there are Icelandic traditions which tell about a Norse 
colony founded in Greenland, and about some early voy- 
ages to the land south of it. They say that one Bjarni 

• This cut represents a species of picture -writing occasionally used by the Indians. 
Some Indian guides wished to inform their comrades that a company of fourteen 
whites and two Indians had spent the night at a certain place. Nos. 9, 10 indicate the 
white soldiers and their arms; No. 1 is the captain, with a sword; No. 2 the secre- 
tary, with the book; No. 3 the geologist, with a hammer; Nos. 4, 5, 6 are attend- 
ants ; Nos. 7, 8 are the guides, without hats ;j Nos. 11, 12 show what they ate in 
camp; Nos. 13, 14, 15 indicate how many fires thej^ made. 



16 INTRODUCTION 

(be ar'ne) first saw the land to the south, while driven out 
of his course on his way to Greenland. A few years later, 
they say, about the year 1000, Leif Er'icsson explored the 
coast southward and discovered " Vinland" (perhaps New 
England), returning to Greenland with a load of timber. 
Afterwards other adventurers made successful voyages, 
established a temporary settlement, and bartered with the 
natives. Snor'ro, son of one of these settlers, is said to 
have been the first child born of European parents upon 
our shore.^ How much credit is to be given to these tra- 
ditions is uncertain, but the story is probably true in the 
main. There was certainly a Norse colony in Greenland 
not long after the time stated in the traditions ; and ruins 
of its stone buildings are still to be seen. But on this 
continent the Northmen left no evidence of their visits.^ 
Admitting, however, the claim made for the Northmen, 
the fact is barren of all results. No permanent settle- 
ments were made, the route hither was lost, and even the 
existence of the continent was forgotten. 

The true history of this country begins with the dis- 
covery of America by Columbus in 1492. It naturally 
divides itself into six great epochs. 

First Epoch. — Early Discoveries and Explorations. — This 
epoch extends from the discovery of America in 1492, to 
the settlement at Jamestown, Va., in 1607. During this 
period various European nations were exploring the 
southern and eastern parts of our country. 

' Snorro was the founder of an illustrious family. One of his descendants is said to 
have been AlliertThor'waldson.tlic Rrcat Danisli sculptor of the nineteontti century. 
The beautiful photographs of Thorwaldsen's "Day," "Night," and "The 8«'aeons," 
which hang in so many American' homes, thuR acquire a new interest by being linked 
with the hoy born on New Ensland shores so many centuries ago. 

2 The rock inscription at Digliton, Mass., was the work of Indians; the famous 
stone tower at Newport, R. I., was a windmill built by English settlers. Both, how- 
ever, were for a time supiKtsed by many to have been tlie work of Northmen. 



EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 17 

Second Epoch. — Development of the English Colonies. — 
The second epoch extends from the settlement at James- 
town, Va., in 1607, to the breaking out of the Revolu- 
tionary War in 1775. During this period the scattered 
settlements along the Atlantic coast grew into thirteen 
flourishing colonies, subject to Great Britain. 

Third Epoch. — The Revolutionary War. — This epoch ex- 
tends from the breaking out of the Revolutionary War in 
1775, to the beginning of government under the Constitu- 
tion in 1789. During this period the colonies threw off the 
government of Great Britain and established their inde- 
pendence. 

Fourth Epoch. — Development of the States {to 1861). — 
This epoch extends from the inception of the Constitu- 
tion in 1789, to the breaking out of the Ci\al War in 1861. 
During this period great additions were made to our ter- 
ritory, the States increased in number from thirteen to 
thirty-four, and the country increased rapidly in popula- 
tion and wealth. 

Fifth Epoch.— The Civil War. — This epoch extends 
from (the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861, to the 
surrender of the Confederate armies in 1865. During this 
period a gigantic strife was carried on between the 
Northern and the Southern States, the former struggling 
for the perpetuation of the Union, and the latter for its 
division. 

Sixth Epoch. — Development of the Nation (since 1865). — 
The sixth epoch extends from the close of the Civil War 
in 1865, to the present time. During this period the 
different problems growing out of the Civil War have 
been solved, the number of States has been further in- 
creased, and in industry and wealth the country has be- 
come the greatest in the world. 

B. HIST. V. 8.-2 



18 



INTRODUCTION 



COLLATERAL READINGS 

The Indians.— Fiske's DUvovenj of Aincru-a, vol. i. pp. 1-21, 140-147 ; or Parkiiiau's 
CoHspinwi/ of I'onliar, chap. i. 

The Nortbiueii. — Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. i. pp. 162-178. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. The Indians. 



The Northmen. 



1. Their Number. 

2. Who were they ? 



Natural Divisions of 
United States History. 



3. 


American Antiquities. . 


a. 
b. 


Mounds. 
Pueblos. 


4. 


Tribes. 




a. 

h. 


Arts aiid Inven- 
tions. 
Progress and Gov 


5. 


Inilian Characteristics. • 


r. 


eniinent. 
Domestic Life. 








(1. 


Disposition. 








e. 


Endurance. 








/• 


Religion. 


6. 


The Indian of 
PreseTit. 


the 






1. 


Who were they ? 








2. 


Stories of Bjarni 
Leif Ericsson. 


and 






3. 


Who was Snorro ? 








4. 


The Northmen 
Grecnliind. 


in 






5. 


Results. 








1. 


First Epoch. 








2. 


Second Epoch. 








3. 


Third Epoch. 








4. 


Fourth Epoch. 








5. 


Fifth Epoch. 








6. 


Sixth Epoch. 









EPOCH I- EARLY DISCOVERIES AND 
EXPLORATIONS 



Geographical Knowledge in the Fifteenth Century. — The 

people of Europe in the fifteenth century had never heard 
of America/ About that time a great desire for geo- 
graphical knowledge was awakened. The compass and 
the astrolabe — an instrument for ascertaining latitude — 
had given a new impulse to navigation. Voyagers were 
no longer compelled to creep along the shore, but began to 
strike out boldly into the 



open sea. 
ing had 



The art of print- 
just come into 




FIFTEENTH-CENTURY SHIP. 



use, and books of travel 
were eagerly read. Marco 
Polo and other adventurers 
returning from the East 
told wonderful tales of the 
wealth of Asiatic cities. 

Genoa and Venice, com- 
manding the commerce of the Mediterranean, had be- 
come enriched by trade with the East. The costly shawls, 

' At the opening of modern history the known world comprised only Europe, 
southwestern Asia, and a strip of northern Africa Cape Nun was considered the 
limit of navigation on the African coast. The most absurd ideas prevailed in regard 
to the regions beyond. The water at the equator was thought to be boiling hot ; the 
tropic sun, it was said, would permanently blacken the skin of any white man who 
ventured farther south; and the unknown seas were supposed to be peopled by 
terrible sea monsters. 

19 



20 



EARLY DISCUVEKIKS AND EXPLORATIONS 



[1453 



spices, and silks of Persia and India were borne by cara- 
vans and ships to the Red Sea, thence on camels across 




TJIE KNOWN WORLD IN ll'JO. 



the desert to the Nile, and lastly by ship over the Medi- 
terranean to Europe; or they were carried by caravans to 
the Black Sea or to the Mediterranean, and thence by 
ship to western Europe. But when the Turks took Con- 
stantinople (1453) they put a sudden end to much of this 
commerce, and as they advanced on Egypt they threat- 
ened to end the Eastern trade entirely. 

The gi-eat problem of the age was how to reach the 
East Indies by sea, and thus give a new and cheaper 
route to their rich products.' 



1 Tlio Poitiifruosc wcro at this time the raost enterprising navigatorH in Europe. 
Prince Uemy devoted himself to the study of .astronomy, founded an observatory 



1474] CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 21 

The Discovery of America. — Columbus ^ conceived that 
he could reach the East Indies by sailing west. He be- 
lieved the earth to be round, while almost every one then 
thought it to be flat. He, however, thought it was smaller 
than it really is, and that Asia extended much farther 
round the world to the east than it does. Hence he 
argued that by going a few hundred leagues west he would 
reach the eastern coast of Asia." He was determined to 
try this new route, but was too poor to pay for the neces- 
sary ships and provisions. 

and a naval college, collected all existing information concerning the earth's sur- 
face, and prepared new and more accurate charts for navigators. His father, John I., 
and his grandnephew, John II., encouraged maritime explorations. Under such 
auspices the Portuguese sailors made voyage after voyage along the African coast. 
They discovered the A zores' and Cape Verde Islands, crossed the dreaded equator, 
and finally, under Diaz (dee'ahth), reached the southern extremity of Africa, and 
sailed several hundred miles eastward (1486). Ou liis return, Diaz told of the cape 
which he called Stormy Cape; but the king, believing the long-desired route to India 
was now found, rechristened it the Cape of Good Hope. 

1 Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, about 1435. He was trained for 
the sea from his childhood. As he was the eldest of four children, and his father a 
poor wool comber, much care devolved upou hiiu. It is said that at thirty his hair 
was white from trouble and anxiety. 

Columbus was determined, shrewd, and intensely religious. He believed himself 
to be divinely called to "carry the true faith iuto the uttermost parts of the earth." 
Inspired by this thought, no discouragement or contumely could drive him to despair. 
It was eighteen years from the conception of his plan to the time when he was en- 
abled to try his new route. During all this time his lite was a marvel of patience, and 
of brave devotion to his one purpose. His sorrows were many ; his triumph was 
brief. Evil men maligned him to Ferdinand and Isabella, t'je Spanish monarchs 
who supplied his ships. Disregarding their promise that he should be governor gen- 
eral over all the lands he might discover, the king and queen sent out another gov- 
ernor, and by his order Columbus was taken home in chains ! It is sad to know that 
although Ferdinand and Isabella endeavored to soothe his wounded spirit by many 
attentions, they never restored to him his lawful rights. From fluent promises they 
passed at last to total neglect, and Columbus died a grieved and disappointed old man. 
At his request, his chains were buried with him, a touching memorial of Spanish 
ingratitude. 

■•^ Several facts served to strengthen the faith of Columbus in the correctness of his 
theory. The Azores and the Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde islands, being the most 
westerly lands then known, were the outposts of geographical knowledge. There had 
been washed on their shores, by currents from the west, pieces of wood curiously 
carved, trees and seeds of unknown species, and especially the bodies of two men of 
strange color and visage. 



22 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1484 

Columbus at the Court of Portufjal. — He accordingly 
laid his plan before Kiug John of Portugal, who referred 
it to his geographers. They pronounced it a visionary 
scheme. With a lurking feeling, however, that there 
might be truth in it, the king had the meanness to dis- 
patch a vessel secretly to test the matter. The pilot had 
the charts of Columbus, but lacked his courage. After 
sailing westward from Cape Verde Islands for a few days, 
and seeing nothing but a wide waste of wildly tossing 
waves, he returned, ridiculing the idea. 

Columbus at the Court of SiJciin. — Columbus, disheart- 
ened by this treachery, betook himself to Spain. During 
seven long years he importuned King Ferdinand and 
others for help in his plan. All this while he was re- 
garded as a visionary fellow, and when he passed along 
the streets, even the children touched their foreheads and 
smiled. The learned council at Salamanca promptly de- 
clared the plan too foolish for serious attention.^ Colum- 
bus gained a few influential friends, but King Ferdinand 
and Queen Isabella declined to aid him. Turning away 
sadly, Columbus determined to go to France. 

Columbus Successful. — His friends at the Spanish court, 
at this juncture, laid the matter before Queen Isabella, and 
she was finally won to his cause. The king remained 
indifferent and pleaded the want of funds. The queen in 
her earnestness exclaimed, "I pledge my jewels to raise 
the money." But her sacrifice was not required. The 
royal treasurer advanced most of the money, and the 

' " It is absurd," said those wise mm. " Who is so foolish as to believe that there 
are people on the other side of the world, walkintr with their heels upward and their 
beads hanging down? And then, how can a ship get there 1 The torrid zone, 
through which they must pass, is a region of fire, where the very waves boil. And 
even If a ship nould perchance get around there safely, how could it ever get back I 
Can a ship sail uphill ? " All of which sounds very strange to us now, when every 
year hundreds of travelers make the entire circuit of the globe. 



1492] CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 23 

friends of Columbus the remainder. Columbus had suc- 
ceeded at last, after eighteen years of waiting. 

Columbus's Equip- 
ment. — Though he 
was armed with 
the king's author- 
ity, Columbus ob- 
tained vessels and 
sailors with the 
greatest difficulty. 
The boldest sea- 
men shrank from 
such a desperate 
undertaking. At 
last three small ves- 
sels were manned: the Finta (peen'- 
tah), Santa Maria (sahn'tah mah- 
ree'ah), and JSina (neen'yah). They 
sailed from Palos (pah'los), Spain, August 3, 1492. 

Incidents of the Voyage. — They went first to the Cana- 
ries and then sailed westward on the untried sea. When 
the sailors saw the last trace of land fade from their sight, 
many, even of the bravest, burst into tears. As they pro- 
ceeded, their hearts were wrung by superstitious fears. 
To their dismay, the compass began to vary from its usual 
direction, and they believed that they were coming into a 
region where the very laws of nature were changed. They 
came into the track of the trade wind, which wafted them 
steadily westward. This, they were sure, was carrying 
them to destruction, for how could they ever return against 
it ? Signs of land, such as flocks of birds and fresh, green 
plants, were often seen, and the clouds near the horizon 
assToned the look of land ; but they disappeared, and only 




24 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1492 

the broad ocean spread out before them as they advanced. 
The sailors, so often deceived, lost heart and insisted upon 
returning home. Columbus, with wonderful tact and 
patience, explained all these appearances. But the more 
he argued, the louder became their murmurs. At last 
they secretly determined to throw him overboard. Al- 
though he knew their feelings, he did not waver, but 
declared that he would proceed till the enterprise was 
accomplished. 

Soon, signs of land silenced their murmurs. A statf, 
artificially carved, and a branch of thorn with berries 
floated near. All was now eager expectation. In the 
evening Columbus beheld a light rising and falling in the 
distance, as of a torch borne by one walking. Later at 
night the joyful cry of " Land!" rang out from the Pinta. 
In the morning the shore of an island, green with tropical 
verdure, lay smiling before them. 

The Land'uig. — Columbus, dressed in a splendid military 
suit of scarlet embroidered with gold, and followed by a 
retinue of his officers and men bearing banners, landed 
upon this island Friday, October 12, 1492. He threw him- 
self upon his knees, kissed the earth, and with tears of 
joy gave thanks to God. He then formally planted the 
cross and took possession of the country in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella.' 

Further Discoveries. — Columbus named the island San 
Salvador. He supposed that he had reached one of the 
islands lying off the eastern coast of India (Asia), and he 
therefore called the dark-hued natives Indians. Careful 
inquiries were made concerning the rich products of the 



1 This island was one of tbe Bahamas — probably Watling Island. The wondering 
natives who crowded the shore pazed on the spectacle with awe. Thej" supposed the 
ships to be huge white-winged birds, and the Spiiniards to have come from heaven. 



1492] 



CHIUSTOPHER COLUMBUS 



25 



East, such as spices, precious stoues, and especially gold. 
But the simple people had only a few golden ornaments. 
These they readily bartered for small bells. Columbus 
then visited Cuba, which he thought was part of the Asian 




mainland ; and Hai'ti,^ which he 
took to be Cipan'go, or Japan, 
He even sent a deputation into 
Cuba, to a famous chief, suppos- 
ing him to be the great king of 
Tartary ! At last, urged by his crew, he gave up the 
search for Oriental treasure and sailed for home. 

His lieception, on his return, was flattering in the ex- 
treme. The whole nation took a holiday. His appear- 
ance was hailed with shouts and the ringing of bells. The 
king and queen were dazzled by their new and sudden 

• The Pinta ha<l become separated from the other ships, and the Santa Maria was 
wrecked oii the shores of Haiti —or Hispanio'la, as it was first named. As the Nina 
was too small to carry a double crew, a colony of forty men was loft on this island — 
the first settlement of Spaniards in the western hemisphere. When Columbus came 
here on Ms second voyage he found that every one of these settlers had perished. 



26 EAKLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1493 

acquisition. As Columbus told them of the beautiful 
land he had found, its brilliant birds, its tropical forests, 
its delightful climate, and, above all, its natives waiting 
to be converted to the Christian faith, they sank upon 
their knees and gave thanks to God. 

The Mkstakv of Columbus. — Columbus never even sus 
pected that there was any such continent as America. 
People then supposed that all the land in the world was 
embraced in the three parts or continents of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa, with the adjacent islands. Columbus did not 
set out to discover a new world. He was instead trjdng 
a new route to the eastern coast of Asia, which he thought 
was much nearer than it really is. He found some tropi- 
cal islands and coasts about where he had expected to find 
those of Asia ; and for many years everybody thought 
that he had succeeded iu his quest. He made three later 
voyages to the same region, exploring more islands and 
coasts.' But he never lost the delusion that these lands 
were on the eastern coast of Asia, and died ignorant of 
the fact that he had really discovered a new world.- 

How America was named. — Amer'icus Vespu'cius,' an 
Italian in the service of Portugal, made a voyage along 

1 It was uot till 1498, however, that he touched the iiiainlaiul of America. This was 
on his third voyage, and the laud foiiud was near the mouth of the Orinoco River. 

-The body of Columbus was buried at VaUadolid. It was thence traneporteil, in 
1513, to the Carthusian Monastery of Seville, and twenty-three years later to the city of 
Banto Domingo, iu the island of Haiti. In 17% the remains, as was supposed, were taken 
to Havana with imposing ceremonies ; and iu 1898, after the war between Spain and the 
United States, they were conveyed to Seville, in Spain. But it is now claimed by 
some that this body is not that of the great admiral, but of another member of his 
family ; for in 1877, while an excavation was being made near the Catheilral in Santo 
Domingo, a vault was opened and a leaden eollin was found containing human bones, 
and Inscribed in Spanish : " Illustrious and renowned man, Christopher Columbus." 

'* In Italian this name is Amerigo Vespucci (ah mareego ves poot'chee). Vespu- 
ciusmadc several voyages of discovery. It is V>elieved that on the first voyage, under 
Pinzon (peen thou) and Solis in the service of Spain, he followed the coast from Yuca- 
tan northward around Florida; and that this was in uy7—l>eforc Columbus had dis- 
covered the mainland. 



1501] 



HOW AMEEICA WAS NAMED 



27 



the coast of what is now Brazil (1501)/ This coast was so 
long and was so far southeast of the lands discovered by 

Columbus that it was 
supposed to be a hitherto 
unknown continent — a 
new world. 

A letter from Ves- 
pucius, describing his 
voyages, was published 
(1507) by a German au- 
thor, who suggested that 





the new part of the world should be called 
America after its discoverer. This, being 
the first printed description of the new 
world, was very popular, and the name 
was soon adopted by geographers. 
For a time it was applied only to 
part of South America ; for the 
lands found by Columbus and 
others far to the northwest - 
were supposed to be parts 
of Asia. When this mis- 
take was corrected, the 
name was naturally given to the whole of the New World. 
John Cab'ot, an Italian navigator living in Bristol, Eng- 
land, obtained authority from King Henry VII. to make 

> In 1497 an expedition under Viisco d;i Ga'ma sailed from Portugal, and following 
the track of Diaz around the Cape of Good Hope, crossed the Indian Ocean, reached 
India, and two years later returned to Portugal laden with rich cargoes from the 
Orient. The prohlem of the sea route was solved ! On Gama'e return, a fleet under 



28 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1497 

a voyage of discovery to the east, west, or north. After 
a voyage to the west, he came in sight of a sterile 
region, probably Labrador (map, p. 45), and sailed along 
the coast for many leagues. This was in 1497, fourteen 
months before Columbus discovered the continent. Cabot 
supposed that he had reached the territory of the " Great 
Cham," king of Tartary. Nevertheless he landed, planted 
a banner, and took possession in the name of the king of 
England. On his return home he was received with much 
honor, was dressed in silk, arid styled the "Grand Admiral." 

The next year Cabot made a second voyage to the west. 
He probably discovered Newfoundland and coasted as far 
south as Cape Cod. It is believed that his son Sebastian 
accompanied him on his voyages. As the Cabots found 
no gold, precious stones, or spices, the second expedi- 
tion was considered a failure. Yet by their discoveries 
England claimed a title to a vast territory in the New 
World. 

We shall now follow the principal explorations made 
within the limits of the future United States by the 
Spanish, French, English, and Bntcli. The Spanish ex- 
plored mainly the southern portion of North America; 
the French, the northern ; and the English, the middle 
portion along the coast.^ 

Cabriir set out for India, but on its way it pailed ro far to the -west that Cabral sighted 
land (Brazil) in a rc^'ion whore no land was supposed to be. He therefore sent word 
of his discovery to the Portuguese king, and the voyage of Vespucius was the result. 

1 In South America Spain explored and acquired all the land except Brazil, which 
fell to Portugal. Pope Alexander VI. in H93 apportioned the unknown regions of the 
earth to Spain and Portugal, giving to Spain all west and to Portugal all east of 
a lino running north and south 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands. 
This "lino of demarcation" was soon changed, by trciity, to the meridian 370 leagues 
■west of the Cape Verde Islands. By this change a large part of the then unheard-of 
New World was given to Portugal, and her claim was soon established by the discover- 
ies of Cabral and Vespucius. But the chief energies of Portugal we;e devoted to 
Africa and especially India ; for a time she monopolized the protltable Eastern trade 
which Venice and Genoa had lost. 



1521] SPANISH EXPLOEATIONS 29 

COLLATERAL READING 

Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. i. pp. 349-354, 395-446 (on Columbus) ; or vol. ii, 
pp. 1-18 (on the Cabots) ; or vol. 11. pp. 25-47 (on Vespucius). 

SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 

Feeling in Spain. — AiDerica, at this time, was to the 
Spaniard a land of vague but magnificent promise, where 
the simple natives wore the costliest gems unconscious of 
their value, and the sands of the rivers sparkled with 
gold. Every returning ship brought fresh news to quicken 
the pulse of Spanish enthusiasm. Now, Cor'tes had taken 
Mexico, and reveled in the wealth of the Montezu'mas; now, 
Pizar'ro had conquered Peru, and had captured the riches 
of the Incas; now, Magel'lan, sailing through the strait 
which bears his name, had crossed the Pacific, and one of 
his vessels, returning home by the Cape of Good Hope, 
had circumnavigated the globe.* Men of the highest rank 
and culture, warriors, adventurers, all flocked to the New 
World. Soon Cuba," Hispauiola (Haiti), Porto Rico, and 
Jamaica were settled, and ruled by Spanish governors. 
From her American colonies, Spain received many ship- 
loads of gold and silver, which helped to make her for a 
time the wealthiest and most powerful nation in Europe. 
Though the Spaniards enslaved the Indians, yet an ever- 

1 Magellan was a Portuguese in the service of Spain. His voyage was made in 
spite of mutiny, famine, and other great difficulties. In the Pacific, which ho named, 
he discovered the Ladrones' and the Phil'ipplnes (1521). In the Philippines he joined a 
friendly chief in an attack on some natives who refused to accept Christianity, and he 
was killed while covering the retreat of his men after their defeat. The Spaniards 
took possession of the Philippines a few years later, and founded Manila in 1571 
(map, I). 349). For about two hundred years all trade and communication between 
Spain and the Philippines were by way of Mexico or South America. Hence the con- 
nection of the Philippines with tlie New World began more than three centuries 
before this great Spanish colon3' was ceded to the United States. 

2 The natives of Cuba were subdued by Velasquez (va lahs'keth) in 1512. As in the 
other islands of the West Indies, the Indians were reduced to slavery, and perished in 
great numbers. Havana, the greatest city of the West Indies, was founded in 1519. 



30 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1511 

present motive in their exploration of the New World was 
the desire to convert the Indians to Christianity. Among 
the Spanish explorers of the sixteenth century we notice 
the following: 

Ponce de Leon was the first governor of Porto Rico. As 
such, he conquered the natives, and in 1511 founded San 
Juan (sahn hoo ahn'), the oldest city in United States ter- 
ritory. The next year, however, he was deprived of his 
government. Though an old man, he was still a gallant 
soldier, and he coveted the glory of further conquest to re- 
store his tarnished reputation. Besides, he had heard of a 
magic fountain, in a great island to the northwest, where 
one might bathe and be made young again. Accordingly, he 
equipped an expedition and sailed in search of this fabled 
treasure. On Easter Sunday {Pascua Florida in Spanish), 
1513, he came in sight of land. In honor of the day he 
called it Florida. He sailed along the coast, and landed 
here and there, but returned home at last, an old man 
still, having found neither youth nor glory. 

Balbo'a crossed the Isthmus of Panama the same year, 
and from the summit of the mountains beheld a wide 
expanse of the Pacific Ocean, which he called the South 
Sea." Wading into its waters with his naked sword in one 
hand and a Spanish banner in the other, he solemnly de- 
clared that the ocean, and all the shores which it might 
touch, belonged to the crown of Spain forever. 

Narvaez (nar vah'eth) received a grant of Florida, and 
(1528) with 400 men attempted its conquest. Striking 
into the interior, they wandered about, lured on by the 
hope of finding gold. Wading through swamps, crossing 
deep rivers by swimming and by rafts, fighting the lurk- 
ing Indians who incessantly harassed their path, and 

> It was so called because at this point the ooeau is south of the land. 



1528] 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 



31 



nearly perishiDg with hunger, they reached at last the 
Gulf of Mexico. Hastily constructing some crazy boats, 
they sailed westward. After several weeks of peril and 
suffering, they were shipwrecked, and Narvaez was lost. 
Eight years afterwards four persons — the only survivors 
of this ill-fated expedition — reached the Spanish settle- 
ments on the Pacific coast of Mexico. 

Ferdinand de Soto, undismayed by these failures, under- 
took anew the conquest of Florida. He set out with 600 
men, amid the fluttering of banners, the flourish of trump- 
ets, and the gleaming of helmet and lance. For month 
after month this procession of cavaliers, priests, soldiers, 
and Indian captives marched through the wilderness, wher- 




DE SOTO FINDS THE MISSISSIPPI. 



ever they thought gold might be found. They traversed 
what is now Greorgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In the 
third year of their wanderings (1541) they emerged upon 
the bank of the Mississippi River. After another year of 



32 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1542 

fruitless explorations, De Soto died/ The other adven- 
turers were now anxious only to get home in safety. They 
constructed boats and descended the river, little over half 
of this gallant array finally reaching the settlements in 
Mexico. 

Menendez (ma nen'deth), wiser than his predecessors, on 
landing (1565), forthwith laid the foundations of a colony. 
In honor of the day, he named it St. Augustine. This is 
the oldest to^Yn on the njainland of the United States.- 

Explorations on the Pacific. — California^ in the sixteenth 
century, was a general name applied to all the region 
northwest of Mexico. It is said to have originated in an 
old Spanish romance very popular in the time of Cortes, 
in which appeared a queen whose magnificent country 
bore this name. The Mexican Indians told the Spaniards 
that most of their gold and precious stones came from a 
country far to the northwest. Cortes, therefore, turned 
his attention in that direction, and sent out several expe- 
ditions to explore the Californias; but all these adven- 
turers returned empty-handed.^ 

Corond'do made the first extensive exploration of the 
southwestern part of our country. Starting from the 
Pacific coast of Mexico, he marched to the northeast as 
far as the present States of Kansas and Nebraska. He 
found the curious houses of the Pueblo Indians in New 

1 At tbo dead of night his followers sank his body in the river, and the sullen 
•waters buried his hopes and his ambition. " lie had crossed a large part of tlie conti- 
nent," says Bancroft, "and found nothing so remarkable as his biu-ial place." 

2 Many Spanish remains still exist. Among these is Fort Marion, once San Marco, 
•which •was founded in 15G5 and finished in 1755. It is built of coqnina (kokeni) — a 
curious stono coini)osed of small shells. 

3 Ships were also sent from Mexico across the Pacific, and one of these, driven out 
of its course, was wrecked on the Hawaiian Islands (1527). Later this group was discov- 
ered by a Spanish explorer (1555) and was marked on a few old Spanish charts ; but 
the Spaniards did not take possession of the islands. The natives, several hundred 
thousand in number, were left to themselves for more than two centuries, until the 
Islands were rediscovered by Captain Cook, the famous English navigator (1778). 



1542] 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 



33 



Mexico, but of the gold that he sought he found none 
(1540-42). 

Cahrillo (kah breel'yo) made the first voyage along 
what is now the California coast (1542) ; he died in San 
Diego (sahn de a'go) harbor, but his pilot went many 
miles farther north. 

Espejo (es pa'ho) explored and named New Mexico 
(1582), and a few years later the Spaniards founded 
Santa Fe (sahn tah fa'), which is the oldest town in the 
western United States. 

Spanish Claims in North America in i6oo. — Spain, at the 
close of the sixteenth century, had conquered and held 




SPANISH EXPLORATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA TO 1600. 

possession of the West Indies, Central America, and 
Mexico. Besides this Spanish explorers had traversed 
the whole of the southern portion of the United States 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. All this part of our 

B. HIST. U. 8.-3 



34 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1524 

vast territory, and more, they claimed by the rights of 
discovery and exploration, though their only settlements 
in it were St. Augustine in Florida and Santa Fe in New 
Mexico. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. ii. pp. 500-611. 

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 

The French were eager to share in the profits which 
Spain was acquiring in the New World. Within seven 
years after the discovery of the continent the waters of 
Newfoundland were frequented by their fishermen.^ For 
many years after Magellan's voyage, mariners of various 
nations tried to find a "northwest passage" to India 
through or around North America.^ 

Verrazano (-tsah'no), a native of Florence, Italy, was the 
first navigator sent by the French king to find the new way 
to the Indies. Sailing westward from Madeira (1524), he 
reached land near the present harbor of Wihningtou, N. C. 
He coasted along the shores of Carolina and New Jersey, 
entered the harbors of New York and Newport, and re- 
turned with a glowing description of the lands he had 
found. He named the country New France. 

Cartier (kar tya') ascended the River St. Lawrence^ 
(1535) to the Indian \illage of Hochelaga (ho she lah'gah), 
on the site of Montreal. The village was pleasantly sit- 
uated at the foot of a lofty hill, which Cartier climbed. 

• Cape Bret'on Island was named by the, flsbermen In remembranco of their home 
in Brittany, France. 

'■■' The routes by the Cape of Good Hope and by the Strait of Magellan were long and 
tedious. But it was at last found that the real northwest passage was still more dif- 
ficult. It was first traversed in 1850-54, from Bering Sea to Baffin Bay. It is of no 
value to commerce. 

3 The name St, Lawrence was that of the day on which Cartier entered the gulf. 



1562] FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 35 

Stirred by the magnificent prospect, he named the place 
Mont Real, that is, Mount Royal. 

Ribaut (re bo') led out the first expedition (1562) under 
the auspices of Coligny (ko leen yee')/ The company 
landed at the site of Port Royal, S. C. So charmed 
were they that when volunteers were called for to hold 
the country for France, many eagerly came forward — 
more than could be allowed to stay. They erected a fort, 
which they named Carolina in honor of Charles IX.,- king 
of France. The fleet departed, leaving a little band of 
thirty alone on the continent. From the North Pole to 
Mexico, they were the only civilized men. Food became 
scarce. They tired of the eternal solitude of the wilder- 
ness, and finally built a rude ship and put to sea. Here a 
storm shattered their vessel. Famine overtook them, and, 
in their extremity, they killed and ate one of their num- 
ber. A vessel at last hove in sight, and took them on 
board, only to carry them captives to England.'^ Thus 
perished the colony, but the name still survives. 

Laudonniere (lo do ne ar'), two years after, built a fort, 
also called Carolina, on the St. Johns River in Florida. 
Soon the colonists were reduced to the verge of starva- 
tion.* They were on the point of leaving, when they were 

' Coligny was an admiral of France, and a leader of the Hu'guenots, as the French 
Protestants were then called. He had conceived a plan for founding an empire in 
America. This would furnish an asylum for his Huguenot friends, and at the same 
time advance the glory of the French. Thus religion and patriotism combined to 
Induce him to send out colonists to the New World. 

2 The Latin for Charles is Carolus; hence the name Carolina. 

3 The most feeble were landed in France. It is said that Queen Elizabeth first 
thought of colonizing the New World from conversing with the Huguenots sent to 
England. 

* Their suflferings were horrible. Weak and emaciated, they fed themselves with 
roots, sorrel, pounded fish bones, and even roasted snakes. " Oftentimes," says Lau- 
donnifere, " our poor soldiers were constrained to give away the very shirts from their 
backs to get one fish. If at any time they showed unto the savages the excessive price 
which they took, these villains would answer them roughly : ' If thou make so great 



36 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1565 

reeiiforced by Ribaut. The French now seemed fairly 
fixed on the coast of Florida. The Spaniards, however, 
claimed the country. Menendez, about this time, had made 
a settlement in St. Augustine. Leadiug an expedition 
northward through the wilderness, in the midst of a fear- 
ful tempest, he attacked Fort Carolina and massacred 
almost the entire population. Thus ended the attempt to 
establish a French colony in the Southeast. 

Champlain (sham plan'), at the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century, crossed the Atlantic in two pygmy Ijarks — 
one of twelve, the other of fifteen tons — and ascended the 
St. Lawrence on an exploring tour. At Hochelaga all was 
changed. The Indian town had vanished, and not a trace 
remained of the savage population which Cartier saw there 
seventy years before.^ Champlain was overpowered by the 
charms of the New World, and longed to plant a French 
empire and the Catholic faith amid its savage wilds. 

De Monts (moN) received from the French king a grant 
of all the territory between the fortieth and forty-sixth 
parallels of latitude. This tract was termed Aca'dia, a 
name afterwards confined to New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia. In 1605, with Champlain, he founded Port Royal 
(Nova Scotia), the first agricultural colony in America. 
Port Royal was soon abandoned, but a few years later, 
under other owners, it became a permanent settlement. 

Champlain made a second voyage to America in 1608, and 
established a trading post at Quebec. This was the first 
permanent French settlement in Canada. The next sum- 
mer, in his eager desire to explore the country, he joined a 
war party of the Hurons against the Iroquois, or Five Na- 

account of thy merchandise, eat it, and we will eat our flsh ' ; then foil they out a laujrh- 
ing, and mocked us with open throat." 

1 This fact illustrates the frequent and rapid changes which took place among 
the aboriginal tribes. 



160d] f'RfiNCH EXPLOfiA'TlONg 57 

tions. On the banks of the beautiful lake which now bears 
his name, Champlain met and put to flight a band of Iro- 



CHAMPLAIN FIGHTS THE IROQUOIS. 

quois. The Iroquois never forgot nor forgave this defeat, 
and their enmity kept the French out of the present State 
of New York. Amid discouragements which would have 
overwhelmed a less determined spirit, Champlain firmly- 
established the authority of France on the banks of the 
St. Lawrence. The '' Father of New France," as he has 
been termed, reposes in the soil he won to civilization. 

The Jesuit Missionaries. — The explorers of the Lake 
region and the Mississippi valley were mostly Jesuit^ 
priests. The French names which they gave still linger 
throughout that region. Their hope was to convert the 
Indians to the Christian faith. They pushed their way 

' The Society of Jesus is one of the famous religious orders of the Roman Catholic 
Church. It was founded by St. Ignatius Loyo'la in 1540, and at one time numbered 
over 20,000. The Jesuits are noted for the zeal, learning, aud skill which they have 
displayed in missionary and other religious work in all parts of the world. 



38 



EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



[1668 



through the forest with unflagging energy. They paddled 
up the Ottawa River and carried their canoes across to the 
waters of Lake Huron. They traversed the Upper Lakes. 
In 1668 they founded the mission of Sault (soo) Sainte 
Marie, or St. Mary, the oldest European settlement in Michi- 
gan. Many of them were murdered by the savages ; some 
were scalped ; some were'burned in resin fire ; some were 
scalded with boiling water. Yet as soon as one fell out 
of the ranks another sprang forward to fill the post. 

Father Marquette (mar kef) was one of these patient, in- 
defatigable pioneers of New France. Hearing from some 




MARgUKTTE'S VOVAUE. 



wandering Indians of a great river which they termed the 
" Father of Waters," he determined to visit it. In company 
with the explorer Joliet (zlio lya'), he crossed Lake Michi- 
gan and Green Bay in a canoe, ascended Fox River, and 



1673] FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 39 

floated down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi (1673), and 
thence to the mouth of the Arkansas (ar'kan saw)/ 

La Salle (lah sahl') was educated as a Jesuit, but had 
left that order and had established a trading post at the 
outlet of Lake Ontario.^ Inflamed with a desire to find 
the mouth of the Mississippi, he made his way down the 
river (1682) to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the country 
Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV., king of France. Re- 
turning to France, he made ready to plant a colouy near 
the mouth of the Mississippi ; but when his ships arrived 
in the Gulf of Mexico they missed the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi and landed the colonists on the shore of Texas. 
La Salle was murdered^ by some of his own men while on 
his way to the French settlements in the north. The 
Texas colony soon perished. 

French Claims on North America in 1700. — Before the 
close of the seventeenth century, the French had explored 
the St. Lawrence basin, including the Great Lakes and 
their tributary streams ; the Ohio and its chief branches ; 
and the Mississippi from the Falls of St. Anthony to the 
Gulf, while they claimed the whole basin of that river, ex- 
tending indefinitely westward. They had several settle- 
ments on the St. Lawrence, one at Biloxi on the Gulf, and 

1 Boon after his return, tliough in very poor liealtli, lie made a journey to an Indian 
village on the Illinois, to convert the natives there. On his way home again, while on 
Lake Michigan, he felt the approach of death, and with his two companions went 
ashore not far from the Marquette River. Patient and uncomplaining to the last, ho 
died while at prayer. Years after, when the tempest raged and the Indian tossed 
on the angry waves, he would seek to still the storm by invoking the aid of the pious 
Marquette. 

2 This important post, with the lauds adjacent, was granted him by the Freuch 
king in 1675. Before this time he had made an expedition into the country south of 
the Great Lakes, where he discovered the Ohio River and descended it as far as the 
site of Louisville. 

3 The work begun by La Salle, however, was bravely carried on by other French- 
men. Iberville (e ber veel') founded Biloxi, near the mouth of the Mississippi (1699), 
and Ms brother Bienville (be as veel') founded New Orleans (1718). 



40 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1688 

had planted here and there in the wilderness missions and 
rude forts or trading posts — the beginnings of civilization. 
In 1688 New France possessed a population of 11,000. 




■%^ ^ 2«°'j?-- 



IKENCH EXPLOIiATIONS IN NUKTH AMKKltA TU 1700. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Fiske's Discovery of Amerka, vol. ii. pp. 511-522; or Paikinau's La Salle and the 
Discovery of the Great West, chap. xx. 



ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 

We have seen how the Cabots, sailing under the English 
flag, discovered the American continent, exploring its coast 
from Labrador to Cape Cod. Though the English claimed 
the northern part of the continent i)y right of this discovery, 
yet for two generations they paid little attention to it. 
In Queen Elizabeth's time, however, maritime enterprise 
was awakened, and English sailors cruised on every sea.* 



1 Pir John Hawkiiip onfjapcd In the slave trade, rarryinp: carpoos of neprofs from 
Africa to sell to the Hpauiards in the West Intlies. Soon, however, English sailors 



1576] ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 41 

Like the other navigators of the day, they were eager 
to discover the northwest jmssage to India. 

Frob'isher made the first of these attempts to go north 
of America to Asia. Threading his perilous way among 
icebergs, he pushed into the Uttle bay just north of Hud- 
son Strait (1576), and on a later voyage entered Hudson 
Strait itself. Next, John Davis pushed farther northwest 
and entered Davis Strait (1585). 

Sir Francis Drake was a famous sailor. In one of his 
expeditions on the Isthmus of Panama, he climbed to the 
top of a lofty tree, whence ho saw the Pacific Ocean. 
Looking out on its broad expanse, he resolved to " sail an 
English ship on those seas." Returning to England, he 
equipped a small squadron. He sailed through the Strait 
of Magellan, and coasted along the Pacific shore to the 
southern part of Oregon. Having refitted his ship (1579), 
he sailed westward, and returned home by way of the 
Capo of Good Hojie. He was thus the first Englishman to 
explore the Pacific coast, and to circumnavigate the globe.^ 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert was not a sailor, but he had 

began to dispute with Spain the sovereignty of the sea, and English privateers — " sea 
dogs," as they were called — began to rob the Spanish treasure ships whenever they 
could. The greed of gold, the love of adventure, a chivalrous contempt of danger, and 
the bitter hatred then existing between Protestant England and Catholic Spain, com- 
bined to Inspire the sea dogs to the most daring deeds. 

1 This voyage was in large part a plundering expedition. Along the coast of Chile 
and Peru, Drake robbed towns as well as ships, and he captured the great galleon that 
yearly sailed thence to Spain with precious stones, gold dust, and silver ingots. 
When he reached Plym'outh, England, after an absence of three years, his ship was 
laden with treasure to the amount of £800,000. The queen received a large share of 
the spoils, knighted the freebooter, wore his jewels in her crown, and ordered his ship, 
the Golden Hind, to be preserved in memory of her remarkable voyage. Open war hav- 
ing at last broken out between England and Spain, Drake, Cav'endish, and other free- 
booters went to the West Indies and the " Spanish Main," — the southern coast of the 
Caribbean Sea,— plundering and burning villages, and capturing Spanish treasure 
ships on their way home from the New World. 

The English privateers, however, could fight for their country as well as for private 
gain, and Drake, Hawldns, and Frobisher were iu the very front of the little fleet that 
destroyed the " Invincible Arma'da" (1588) and broke the Spanish power. 



12 



EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



[1583 



studied the accouuts of American discoveries, and con- 
cluded that, instead of random expeditions after gold and 
spices, companies should be sent out to form permanent 
settlements. His attempts to colonize the New World, 
however, ended in his own death. As he- was sailing home 
(1583) in a bark of only ten tons* burden, in the midst of a 
fearful stoi*m the light of his little vessel suddenly disap- 
peared. Neither ship nor crew was ever seen again. 




KALKIGH ANt> THE yUEEN. 



Sir Walter Raleigh ' (raw'll), a half-brother of Gilbert, 
shared his views of American colonization. He easily 



I Raleigh was not only a man of dauntless courage, but he also added to a hand- 
some person much learning and many accomplishments. Meeting Queen Elizabeth 
one day -while she -was walking, he spread his mantle over a wet place iu her path. 
She was so pleased with his gallantry that she admitted him to court, and he contin- 
ued a favorite during her entire lifetime. After her death he was accused by Jamea 
I. of treason, was imprisoned for many years, and was finally executed. On the scaf- 
fold he asked for the ax, and, feeling the edge, ol)sorved with a smile, " This is a sharp 
medicine, but a sound cure for all diseases." Then composedly laying his head on the 
block, and moving his lips as in prayer, he gave the signal for the fatal blow. 



1584] ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 43 

obtained from Queen Elizabeth a patent^ of any remote 
lands not inhabited by Christians, which he might dis- 
cover within six years. In 1584 he sent an expedition 
which explored the coast of what is now North Carolina. 
This whole region was named Virginia in honor of Eliza- 
beth, the Virgin Queen. 

Raleigli's First Attempt to Plant a Colony was on Eoanoke 
Island (map, p. 52). The settlers made no endeavor to 
cultivate the soil, but spent their time in hunting for gold 
and pearls. At last they were nearly starved, when Drake, 
happening to stop there on one of his voyages, took pity 
on them and carried them home. 

They had lived long enough in America to learn the use 
of tobacco from the Indians. This they Introduced into 
England. The custom of " drinking tobacco," as it was 
called, soon became the fashion.^ 

Raleigli's Second Attempt. — Raleigh, undiscouraged by 
this failure, still clung to his colonizing scheme. The next 
time, he sent out families instead of single men. A grand- 
daughter of John White, the governor of the colony, was 
born soon after they reached Eoanoke Island; she was 
the first English child born in America (1587). The gov- 
ernor, on returning to England to secure supplies, found 
the public attention absorbed by the threatened attack of 
the Spanish Armada. It was four years before he was 
able to come back. Meanwhile his family, and the colony 
he had left alone in the wilderness, had perished: how, 
we do not know. 

Ealeigh had now spent about $200,000, an immense sum 

1 A patent was a formal grant of land, with the right to plant colonies on it. 

2 An amusing story is told of Raleigh while he was learning to smoke. One morn- 
ing a servant, on entering the room with a cup of ale for his master, saw a cloud of 
smoke issuing from Raleigh's mouth. Frantically dashing the liquor iu his master's 
face, he rushed downstairs, imploring help lest Sir Walter should be burned to ashes 1 



44 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1602 

for that day, on this American colony ; and, disheartened, 
he transferred his patent to other parties. 

Trading Voyages. — Fortunately for American interests, 
fishing and trading ventures were more profitable than 
colonizing ones. English vessels frequented the Banks 
of Newfoundland, and, probably, occasionally visited Vir- 
ginia. Bartholomew Gosnold,* a master of a small bark, 
discovered (1602) and named Cape Cod and Marthas Vine- 
yard. Loading his vessel with sassafras root, which was 
then highly esteemed as a medicine, he returned home to 
pul)lish most favorable reports of the region. Some Eng- 
lish merchants accordingly sent out the next year two 
vessels under Captain Pring. He discovered several har- 
bors in Maine, and brought back cargoes of fm-s and 
sassafras. 

As the result of these various explorations, many felt an 
earnest desire to colonize the New World. James I. ac- 
cordingly granted two companies permission to found 
colonies in the vast territory of Virginia, as it was called. 

The South Virginia Company, called the London Com- 
pany because its principal men resided at London, was 
to have a block of land 100 miles square sotnewhere on 
the coast between the thirty-fourth and forty-fii-st degrees 
of latitude. This company sent out a colony under 
Captain Newport. He made at Jamestown,^ in 1607, the 

1 Tlie English sliips were aocustoiiKMl to stcor Boiitliw.ird .is far as the Canary 
Islands ; then they followed the track of Cohimlms to the West Indies, anil thencj past 
the coast of Florida northward to the point they wished to reach. Navigators knew 
this was a roundabout way, but they were afraid to try tlic northern route straight 
across the Atlantic. Gosnold made the voyage directly from England to Massaelni- 
setts, tlius shortening the route :tO()0 miles. This gave a great impulse to colonization, 
since it was, in effect, bringing America :iOO:) miles nearer England. 

ii Tlie river was called .Tames, and the town Jamestown, in honor of tlie king 
of England. The headlands at the mouth of the Chesapeake received tlie names of 
Cape Henry and Cai)e Cliarles from the king's sons, and the doep water for 
anciiorago, "which put the emigrants in good comfort," gave the name Point 
Cuuiiort. 



1607] , ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 45 

first peraianent English settlement in the United States ^ 
(see map, p. 52). 

The North Virginia Company, called the Plymouth 
Company because its principal men resided at Plymouth, 
was to select a block 100 miles 
square on the coast between 
the thirty-eighth and forty- 
fifth degrees of latitude. 

The Charter ' granted by the 
king to these two companies 
was the first under which Eng- 
lish colonies were planted in the 
United States. It is therefore 
worthy of careful study. It 




ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA TO 1607. 

contained no idea of self-government. The people were 
not to have the election of an officer. The king was to 

1 About eighty years before- this the Spaniards had tried to establish a colony in 
the same locality as Jamestown, but had failed. The attempt was made under De 
Ayllon (da il yon'), who led thither GOO colonists, including some negro slaves who 
were to do the hard labor of the colony. But De Ayllon died of a fever, dissensions 
arose among his successors, mauy colonists perished on account of sickness, exposure, 
and Indian attacks, and soon the survivors abandoned the country. 

■-' A charter was a document which conferred the title to certain land, and, not unlike 
a constitution, defined the form of government and secured to the people certain 
rights and privileges. 



46 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1609 

appoint a council to live in each colony and have control 
of its local affairs, and also a council to reside in London 
and have general control of both colonies. The king 
issued a long list of instructions to these councils. He 
ordered that the Church of England should be maintained 
in the colony, and that all the proceeds of the colony's in- 
dustry and commerce should go into a common fund, 
no person being allowed the fruit of his individual labor. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Fiske's Old Virginia and her Neighbours, vol. i. pp. 19, 20, 26-35, 38-40. 

DUTCH EXPLORATIONS 

During all this tiihe the Dutch manifested no interest 
in the New World. In the beginning of the seventeenth 
century, however, Captain Henry Hudson, an English 
navigator in the Dutch service, entered Delaware Bay and 
the harbor of New York. Hoping to reach the Pacific 
Oceau, he ascended the noble river which bears his 
name (1609).^ 

On this discovery the Dutch based their claim to the 
region extending from the Delaware River to Cape Cod. 
They gave to it the name of New Netherland. 

CONFLICTING CLAIMS 

The Permanent Settlements. — At the close of the six- 
teenth century neither the English nor the French had 

1 It is now believed that Verrazano (p. 34) was the true discoverer of this stream, 
over three quarters of a century before. Hudson later entered the English service, and 
Bailed into Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay during an attempt to find the northwest 
passage. His explorations hel)>ed to inalce good the English claim to all the laud drain- 
ing into these waters. His crow mutinied, set him and his son adrift in a rowboat, 
and left them to perish in the bay which bears his name. 



1605] CONFLICTING CLAIMS 47 

planted a single enduring colony in America, and the 
only permanent settlements north of the Gulf of Mexico 
were those of the Spaniards at St. Augustine and Santa 
Fe. In the beginning of the seventeenth century perma- 
nent settlements multiplied. Settlements were made by 

The Fkench at Port Eoyal (Nova Scotia), in 1605 ; 

The English at Jamestown, in 1607 ; 

The Feench at Quebec, in 1608 ; 

The Dutch at New Amsterdam (New York), in 1613 ; * 

The English at Plymouth, in 1620. 

The Conflicting Claims. — With the exception of the 
southeastern and southwestern parts of the United 
States, which were practically conceded to Spain, our 
whole country was claimed by each of the three nations, 
Spanish, French, and English;" and part of it also by 
the Dutch. All four nations succeeded in taking posses- 
sion of parts of the country, and therefore the bounda- 
ries of the different colonies were in dispute. While the 
first few settlements were separated by hundreds of miles 
of savage forests, this was of little account. But as the 
settlements increased, the confl letting claims became a 
source of constant strife and were decided finally by the 
sword. 

> " Here lay the shaggy continent from Florida to the Pole, outstretched in savage 
slumber along the sea. On the bank of the Jame.s River was a nest of woe-begoue 
Englishmen, a handful of fur traders at the mouth of the Hudson, and a few shivering 
Frenchmen among the snowdrifts of Acadia ; while, deep within the wild monotony 
of desolation, on the icy verge of the great northern river, Champlain upheld the ban- 
ner of France over the rock of Quebec. These were the advance guard of civilization, 
the messengers of promise to a desert continent. Yet, not content with inevitable 
woes, they were rent by petty jealousies and miserable quarrels, while each little 
fragment of rival nationalities, just able to keep up its own wretched existence on a 
few square miles, begrudged to all the rest the smallest share in a domain which all 
the nations of Europe could not have sutticed to fill."— Parkman. 

2 It is noticeable that the English grants extended westward to the Pacific Ocean ; 
the French, southward from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf; and the Spanish, north- 
ward to the Arctic Ocean. None of the European nations knew how immense waa 
the territory it was granting. 



48 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS 
1. Geo{?raph ical Knowledge in the Fifteenth Century. 



2. Columbus. 



1. His Views. 

2. At Cinirt of Purtiigal. 

3. At Court (if Spain. 

4. His Success. 

6. His Equipment. 
C. His Voyajie. 

7. His Discoveries. 

8. HisRuccptini Home. 

9. STil)Sii|Ufiit Voyages. 
10. His Mistake. 



.3. How America was Named. 



4. The Cabots. 



5 1. John Cabot. 

I 2. Sebastian Cabot. 



Spanish Explorations. ■ 



1. The FeelinK in Spain. 

2. Ponce (ie Leon. 

3. Balboa. 

4. Narvaez. 

.'). Ferdinand de Soto. 
0. Menendez. 

7. Explorations on Paciflc. 

8. Spanish Claims in 1600. 



California. 
Coroiiudo. 
Cnbrillo. 
KKpejo. 



6. French Explorations. < 



English Explorations. • 



8. Dutch Explorations. 



1. Newfoundland Fisheries. 

2. Verrazano. 

3. Cartier. 

4. Ribaut. 

5. Landonnifere. 

C. Champlain. < 

7. DeMonts and Port Royal. 



Visit to nochelaga. 
Vonnds (Quebec. 
Fights Iroquois. 



8. Jesuit Missionaries. 



La Salle. 

French Claims in 1700. 



^ rt. Tlirir seal. 
'( b. Marquette. 



1. English Claim and Maritime Zeal. 

2. Frobislier and Davis. 

3. Francis Drake. 

4. Hunij)hrey Gilbert. 



.'). Raleigh. 

6. Trading Voyages. 

7. Companies formed. 

1. Henry Hudson. 

2. Dutch Claim. 



Tries to plant Col- 
ony. 
Second attempt. 



S " 

C ft. London Co. 
■] b. I'lymoHth Co. 
t c. T/leir Charter. 



9. Conflicting Claims. 



Permnnent Settlements at the End of the Sixteenth 
Century and the Beginninj; of the Seventeenth 
Century. 



Claims of 
Nations. 

( d. The Dutch. 
Result of these Conflicting Claims. 



a. The Spanish. 
The I'rctich. 
The Knqlish. 



the Four ) 6. The I'rench 



EPOCH II.- DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
ENGLISH COLONIES 

. This epoch traces the early history of the thirteen Eng- 
lish colonies — Virginia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, £U}d Georgia. The Cavaliers land in Virginia and 
the Puritans in Massachusetts. Immigration increases, 
and the settlements multiply along the whole coast. The 
country is settled mainly by immigrants from Great 
Britain ; for most of the colonies are founded as English 
dependencies, and the others soon become so. The col- 
onies, however, have little history in common. Each by 
itself struggles with the wilderness, contends with the 
Indian, and develops the principles of liberty. 

I. VIRGINIA 

The Character of the first Jamestown colonists was poorly 
adapted to endure the hardships incident to life in a new 
country. The settlers — about 100 in number — were 
mostly men of gentle birth, unused to labor. They had 
no families, and came out in search of wealth and adven- 
ture, expecting, when rich, to return to England. The 
climate was unhealthful, and before the first autumn half 
of them had perished, including Gosnold, one of their 
leaders. 

B. HIST. C. 8.— 4 49 



50 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1607 



John Smith * saved the colony from ruin. First as a mem- 
ber of the council, and afterwards as president, he rendered 

invaluable service. 
He persuaded the 
settlers to build log 
huts for the winter. 
He made long voy- 
ages, carefully ex- 
ploring Chesapeake 
Bay, securing the 
friendship of the 
Indians, and bring- 
ing back boatloads 
( )f supplies. He 
trained the tender 
gentlemen till they 
learned how to 
swing the ax in the 
forest. He declared that " he who would not work might 
not eat." He taught them that industry and self-reliance 
are the surest guarantees to fortune. 

SmWi's Adventures were of the most romantic character. 

1 Captain John Smith was bom to advonturo. ^^^lile yet a boy ho loft liis liotne 
in Llncolnshiro, Englaud, to engage in Iloll.and wars. Later we hoar of him on his 
way to flght the Turks. In Franco he is robbed, and escapes death from want only 
by begging alms. At sea a fearful storm arises; ho. being a heretic, is doomed the 
cause, and is thrown overboard, but he swims to laud. In the East a famous Mus- 
sulman wishes to flght some Christian knight " to please the ladies"; Smith offers 
himself, and slays tliroo champions in succession! Taken prisoner in battle and sold 
as a slave, his head is shaved and his neck bound with an iron ring; ho Kills his 
master, arrays himself in the dead man's garment-*, mounts a horse, and spurs his 
way to a Russian camp. Having returned to England, he embarks for the New 
World, On the voyage ho excites the jealousy of his follows, and is landed in chains, 
but liis worth becomes so apparent tliat ho is finally made prosiflont of tlio colony. 
These and many other wonderful exploits ho tolls in a book published after his return 
to England. Many historians discredit them. Dowever, his services were of unques- 
tionable value to Virginia, and his disinterestedness appears from the, fact that he 
never received a foot of land lu the colony his wisdom had saved. 




SMITH SHOWS HIS COMPASS. 



16071 



VIRGINIA 



61 



In one of Ms expeditions up the Chickahom'iny ^ he was 
taken prisoner by the Indians. With singular coolness, 
he immediately tried to interest his captors by explaining 
the use of his pocket compass, and the motions of the 
moon and stars. At last they allowed him to write a 
letter to Jamestown. When they found that this informed 
his friends of his misfortune, they were filled with aston- 
ishment. They could not understand by what magical 
art he made a few marks on paper express his thoughts. 
They considered him a being of a superior order, and 
treated him with the utmost respect. He was carried to the 
great chief, the Powhatan', by whom he was condemned 
to die. His head was laid on a stone, and the huge war- 
club of the Indian executioner was raised to strike the 
fatal blow. Suddenly Pocahon'tas, the young daughter 
of the chief, who had already become attached to the pris- 
oner, threw herself upon his neck and pleaded for his 
pardon.^ The favorite of the tribe was given her desire. 



1 This was undertaken by 
the express order of the com- 
pany to seek a passage to the 
PaciUc Ocean and thus to In- 
dia. Captain Newport, before 
his return to England, made a 
trip up the James River for 
the same purpose ; and Henry 
Hudson was searching for a 
passage to India when he 
ascended Delaware Bay and 
Hudson River. The igno- 
rance of that age regarding 
the shape and extent of North 
Americais shown by this map, 
the shaded parts of which represent a map made for Sir Philip Sidney in 1582. The 
map also illustrates why the existence of a short strait between tue Atlantic and 
Pacific in Virginia was thought possible. 

2 This incident has been discredited by many historians because Smith did not 
mention it in his first account (1608) of his adventures, but describes it in the second 
one. published sixteen years later. But his first account is known to be incomplete, 
and this conduct of Pocahontas was entirely in accord with Indian usage. 




^^^^,:l-c^--<^^:^^-" 



52 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1609 

Smith was sent home with promises of friendship. His 
little protector was often thereafter to be seen going to 
Jamestown with baskets of corn for the white men. 
A Second Charter (1609) was soon obtained by the Lon- 
don Company. This 
vested the local au- 
thority in a governor 
insteadof a local coun- 
cil. The colonists were 
not consulted with re- 
gard to the change, nor 
did the charter guar- 
antee to them any 
rights. The new char- 
ter greatly enlarged 
the boundaries of the 
colony, which was now 
to extend along the 
coast 200 miles each 
way from Point Com- 
fort, and thence across the continent " from sea to sea, 
west and northwest." ' 

The ''Starving Time." — Many more colonists had ar- 
rived from England, but now, unfortunately. Smith was 
disabled by a severe wound and compelled to return. 
His influence being removed, the settlers became a prey 
to disease and famine. Some were killed by the In- 
dians. Some, in their despair, seized a boat and became 
pirates. The winter of 1609-10 was long known as the 
" Starving Time." In six months the colonists were re- 
duced from 490 to 60. At last they determined to flee from 
the wretched place. " None dropped a tear, for none had 

> Probably from the Atlantic to the Sea of Verrazano -was meant (see note, p. 51). 




VIRGINIA BY THE CHARTEK OF 1609. 



1610] VIRGINIA 53 

enjoyed one day of happiness." The next morning, as they 
slowly moved down with the tide, to their great joy they 
met their new governor, Lord Delaware, with abundant 
supplies and a company of immigrants. All returned to 
the homes they had just deserted, and Jamestown colony 
was once more saved from ruin. 

The Third Charter. — Up to this time the colony had 
proved a failure and was publicly ridiculed in London. 
To quiet the outcry, the charter was changed (1612). The 
management of the colony had previously been in the 
hands of the council in London ; but now the stockholders 
were given power to meet frequently and regulate the 
affairs of the company themselves. 

The Marriage of Pocahontas (1614). — The little Indian 
girl had now grown to womanhood. John Rolfe, a young 
English planter, had won her love and wished to marry 
her. In the little church at Jamestown, rough almost as 
an Indian's wigwam, she received Christian baptism, and, 
in broken English, repeated the marriage vows according 
to the service of the Church of England.^ 

First Colonial Assembly. — Governor Yeardley believed 
that the colonists should have " a haude in the governing 
of themselves." In obedience to the company's instruc- 
tions, he called at Jamestown, July 30, 1619, the first 
legislative body that ever assembled in America. It 
consisted of the governor, the council, and two deputies, 
or " burgesses," as they were called, chosen from each of 
the eleven settlements, or " boroughs," into which Virginia 
was then divided. The privilege of self-government was 

1 Two years after, she visited London with lier Imsbiind. The childlike simplicity 
and winning grace of Lady Rebecca, as she was called, attracted universal admiration. 
She was introduced at court and received every mark of attention. As slie was about 
to return to her native land with her husband and infant sou, she suddenly died. Her 
son became a man of distinction. Many of the leading families of Virginia have 
been proud to say that the blood of Pocahontas coursed through their veins. 



54 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[Ifi'il 



afterwards (1G21) embodied in a written constitution — 
the first of the kind in America — granted by the com- 
pany under the leadership of Sir Edwin Sandys. The 
laws passed by the colonial assembly had to be ratified 
by the company in London; but the orders from Lon- 
don were not binding unless ratified by the colonial as- 
sembly. A measure of freedom was thus granted the 
colony, and Jamestown became a nursery of liberty. 

Prosperity of the Colony. — The old famine troubles had 
now all passed. The attempt to work in common had 
been given up, and each man tilled his own land and 




THE LANDING OF THb. WOAIEN 



received the profits. Tobacco was the chief article of 
export; its sale made the colony prosperous. The colo- 
nists were so eager in its cultivation that at one time 
they planted it even in the streets of Jamestown. Gold 



1621] VIRGINIA 55 

hunting had ceased/ and many of the former servants of 
the company owned plantations. Settlements lined both 
banks of the James for 140 miles. Best of all, young 
women of good character were brought over by the com- 
pany and were sold as wives to the settlers. The price 
at first was fixed at the cost of the passage, — 120 pounds 
of tobacco, — but wives were in such demand that it soon 
went up to 150 pounds. Domestic ties were formed. 
The colonists, having homes, now became Virginians. 
All freemen had the right to vote, and Virginia became 
almost an independent republic. The population was 
about 4000 (1622). 

Slavery Introduced. — In 1G19 the captain of a Dutch 
trading vessel sold to the colonists twenty negroes.^ They 
were employed in cultivating tobacco. As their labor was 
found profitable, large numbers were afterwards imported. 
For a time, however, the negroes were less numerous than 
white servants, who were sold for a term of years, either 
as a punishment or (with the servant's consent) as a 
means of paying for the passage across the sea. Some- 
times children and even adults were kidnaped, shipped 
to America, and sold in this way. 

Indian Troubles. — After the death of the Powhatan, the 
firm friend of the English, the Indians secretly formed 
a plan for the extermination of the colony. At a precon- 
certed moment they attacked the colonists (March 22, 
1622) on all their widely scattered plantations. About 350 
men, women, and children fell in one day. Fortunately, 



' In the early life of this colony, particles of mica glitterins in a brook were mis- 
taken for gold dust. Newport carried to England a shipload of the worthless stuff. 
Smith remonstrated in vain against this folly. 

2 From this circumstance, small as it seemed at the time, the most momentous 
consequences ensued — consequences that, long after, rent the republic with strife 
and moistened its soil with blood. 



56 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1622 

a converted Indian had informed a friend whom he wished 
to save, and thus Jamestown and the settlements near by 
were prepared. A merciless war ensued, during which 
the Indians were so severely punished that they remained 
quiet for twenty years. Then came a massacre of 300 
settlers (1644), followed by a short war which ended in 
the natives being expelled from the region. 

Virginia a Royal Province. — The majority of the stock- 
holders had gladly granted to the infant colony those rights 
for w^hich they themselves were struggling at home. King 
James, becoming jealous of the company because of its 
republican sentiments, took away the charter (1624) and 
made Virginia a royal province ; that is, the company was 
deprived of all control over the colony, which now passed 
under the immediate control of the king. Henceforth the 
king appointed the governor and council, though the col- 
ony still retained its assembly. 

During and after the struggle between Charles I. and 
the Puritans in England, many of the Royalists or Cav- 
aliers emigrated to Virginia. Yet the colony promptly 
surrendered to the officers sent over by the victorious 
Commonwealth, and during this period it enjoyed increased 
freedom of self-government. 

A Period of Oppression. — After the Restoration of Charles 
II. (1660) the English Parliament enforced the Navi- 
gation Act, which ordered that the commerce of the 
colony should be carried on only in English vessels, and 
that its tobacco should be shipped only to England. 
Besides this, the colonial assembly was composed mainly 
of Royalists, who levied exorbitant taxes, refused to go out 
of office when their term had expired, fixed their salary at 
a high figure, restricted the right of voting to " freehold- 
ers and housekeepers," and imposed on Quakers a monthly 



1676] VIRGINIA, MASSACHUSETTS 57 

fine of one hundred dollars for absence from worship in 
the English Church. Two parties gradually sprang up in 
the colony : one, the aristocratic party, was composed of 
the rich planters and the officeholders; the other com- 
prised the liberty-loving portion of the people, who felt 
themselves deprived of their rights. 

Bacon's Rebellion. — These difficulties came to a crisis in 
1676 — a century before Independence Day — when Gov- 
ernor Berkeley failed to provide for the defense of the 
settlements against the Indians. At this juncture Na- 
thaniel Bacon, a patriotic young man, rallied a company, 
defeated the Indians, and then turned to meet the gov- 
ernor, who had denounced him as a traitor. During the 
contest which followed, Berkeley was driven out of James- 
town and the village itself was burned.' In the midst of 
this success Bacon died. No leader could be found worthy 
to take his place, and the people dispersed. Berkeley re- 
venged himself with terrible severity. On hearing of the 
facts, Charles II. impatiently declared: "He has taken 
more lives in that naked country than I did for the mur- 
der of my father ! " 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Smith and Pocahontas.— Fiske's Old Virginia, vol. i. pp. 80-30, 109-111. 
Virginia in 1634.— Fiske's Old Virginia, vol. i. pp. 223-231, 243-250. 

II. MASSACHUSETTS 

The Plymouth Company (p. 45) failed in an attempt to 
establish a settlement in North Virginia (1607). A few 
years later Captain John Smith examined the coast from 

1 Going up the James River, just before reaching City Point, one sees near the right- 
hand bank the site of the tirst English settlement in Virginia. Part of an old church 
tower, with a few weather-beaten tombstones near by, is all that remains of the 
ancient village of Jamestown. The church itself, however, was rebuilt in the year 
1907. 



5b 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1620 



the Penobscot to Cape Cod, drew a map of it, and called 
the country New England. The company, stirred to 
action by his glowing accounts, obtained a new patent 
(1620) under the name of the Council for New England. 
This authorized them to make settlements and carry on 
trade through a region reaching from 40° to 48° north lati- 




NEW KNGLANl) BV THE PATENT OF lO-iO. 



VICIXITY OF BOSTON. 



tude, and westward from sea to sea. As we shall see, 
however, New England was first settled without consent 
of king or council. 

I. PLYMOUTH COLONY 

Settlement. — Landing of the PiUjrims.^ — One stormy 
day in the autumn of 1620, the Mayflower, with a band of 
a hundred and two Pilgrims, men, women, and children, 

' They were called Pilgrims because of their wanderings. About seventy years 
before this time the state religion of England had been changed from Catholic to 
Protestant ; but a large number of the clergy aud people were dissatisfied with what 



1620] 



MASSACHUSETTS 



69 



came to anchor in Cape Cod harbor. The little company, 
gathering in the cabin, drew up a compact, in which they 




THE irATFLOWER COiMPACT. 

tliey thought to he a halfway change on the part of the new church, and called for a 
more complete purification from old observances and doctrines. For this they were 
called Puritans. They still believed in a state church, but wanted the government to 
make certain changes in it. The government not only refused, but punished the 
Puritan clergy for not using the prescribed form of worship. This led some of them to 
question the authority of the government in religious matters. They came to believe 
that any body of Christians might declare itself a church, choose its own officers, and 
he independent of all external authority. Those who formed such local churches 
separated themselves from the Church of England, and hence were called Separatists. 
One church of Separatists was at Scrooby, in the east of England. Not being allowed 
to worship in peace, they fled to Holland (1608). But they were uuwilUng to have their 
children grow up as Dutchmen, and longed for an English laud where they might 
worship God in their own way, America offered such a home. They came, resolved 
to brave every danger, trusting to God to shape their destinies. 



60 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1620 

agreed to enact just and equal laws, which all should obey. 
One of their exploring parties landed at Plymouth/ as it 
was called on Smith's chart, December 21.- Finding the 
location suitable for a settlement, tlie men all came ashore 
and, amid a storm of snow and sleet, began building rude 
log houses. 

The Pilgrims had intended to settle in what is now 
New Jersey, in the territory controlled by the London 
Company, from which they had procured a patent. 
Stormy weather prevented the M((iifloiccr from going 
there, and the Pilgi-ims settled at Plymouth without wait- 
ing for permission to do so. Later the Council for New 
England gave them several grants of land. 

The Character of the Pilgrims was well suited to the 
rugged, stormy land which they sought to subdue. They 
had come into the wilderness with their families in search 
of a home where they could educate their children and 
worship God as* they pleased. They were earnest, sober- 
minded men, actuated in all things by deep religious 
principle, and never disloyal to their convictions of duty. 

Their Sufferings during the winter were severe. At one 
time there were only seven well persons to take care of 
the sick. Half of the little band died. Yet when spring 
came, and the Mayflower set sail for England, not one of 
the Pilgrims thought of returning with her. 

1 The littlo, shallop sent out to recounoiter before l.'iTidiii.ij lost, in a furious storm, 
its nuldir, mast, and sail. Lato at uight tlie party sought shelter under the lee of a 
small island. Everj' hour ■was precious, as the season was late and their com- 
panions in the Mayflower were waiting their return ; but " being y« last day of y» week, 
tliiy prepared there to kccpe yo Sabbath." No wonder that the influence of such a 
people has been felt throughout tlie country, and that " Forefathers' Rock," on which 
they first stepped, is yet held in grateful remembrance. 

-' This was December 11, Old Style. In 1752 eleven days were added to correct an 
increasing error in the calendar, so Forefathers' Day is observed on the 22d. But in 
1620 the error in the calendar was only ten days instead of eleven, and the correct date 
is the 2l8t, New Style. (Steele's " Popular Astronomy," p. 285.) 



1621] MASSACHUSETTS 61 

The Indians, fortunately, did not disturb them. A pesti- 
lence had destroyed the tribe inhabiting the place where 
they landed. They were startled, however, one day in 
early spring, by a voice in their village crying in broken 
English, " Welcome ! " It was the salutation of Sam'oset, 
an Indian, whose chief, Mas'sasoit, soon after visited them. 
The treaty then made lasted for fifty years. Canon'icus, a 
Narragansett chief, once sent a bundle of arrows, wrapped 
in a rattlesnake skin, as a token of defiance. Governor 
Bradford returned the skui filled with powder and shot. 
This significant hint was effectual.^ 

The Progress of the Colony was at first slow. The set- 
tlers' harvests were insufficient to feed themselves and the 
newcomers. During the "famine of 1623" the best dish 
they could set before their friends was a bit of fish and a 
cup of water. After four years they numbered only 184. 
The plan of working in common having failed here as at 
Jamestown, land was assigned to each settler. Abundance 
ensued. The colony was never organized by royal charter, 
but the king left them in peace to elect their own gov- 
ernor and make their own laws. In 1692 Plymouth was 
united with Massachusetts Bay Colony, of which it there- 
after formed a part. 

2. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 

Settlement. — John Endicott and five associates ob- 
tained (1628) from the Council for New England a grant 
of land between and including the mouths of the Merri- 
mac and Charles rivers, and thence west across the conti- 
nent from sea to sea. Having secured from King Charles I. 

1 Another reason why Plymouth had no disastrous conflict with Indians was the 
ability and bravery of MUea Standish, who acted as military head of the little colony. 
He was one of the mainstays of the colony, though he was not of the same religious 
faith as the Pilgrims. 



62 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1630 



a charter giving authority to make laws and govern the 
territory, the company afterwards transferred all its rights 
to the colony. This was a popular measure, and many 
prominent Puritan families flocked to the land of liberty. 
Some, under the leadership of Endicott, settled at Salem 
and Charlestown ; some established colonies at Dorchester 




KCKMiK WILLIAMS FLEICS TO TIM-; KoUKST. 



and Watertown ; and some, under the new governor, AViii- 
throp, founded Boston (1030). 

Religious Disturbances. — The people of Massachusetts 
Bay, while in England, were Puritans, but not Separatists. 
Having come to America to estabhsh a Puritan church, 
they were unwilling to receive persons holding opinions 
differing from their own, lest their purpose should be 



1636] MASSACHUSETTS 63 

defeated. They accordingly sent back to England those 
who persisted in using the forms of the Established 
Church, and allowed only members of their own church 
to vote in civil affairs. 

Boger Williams^ an eloquent and pious young minister, 
taught that each person should think for himself in all 
religious matters, and be responsible to his own conscience 
alone. He declared that the magistrates had, therefore, 
no right to punish blasphemy, perjury, or Sabbath-break- 
ing. The clergy and magistrates were alarmed at what 
they considered a doctrine dangerous to the peace of the 
colony, and he was ordered (1636) to be sent to England. 
It was in the depth of winter, yet he fled to the forest, 
and found refuge among the Indians. Canonicus, the 
Narragansett sachem, gave him land to found a settle- 
ment, which he gratefully named Providence. 

Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, during the same year, aroused a 
violent and bitter controversy. She claimed to be favored 
with special revelations of God's will. These she ex- 
pounded to crowded congregations of women, greatly to 
the scandal of many Puritans. Finally she also was 
banished. 

The Quakers, about twenty years after these summary 
measures, created fresh trouble by their peculiar views. 
They were fined, whipped, imprisoned, and sent out of 
the colony; yet they as constantly returned, glorying in 
their sufferings. At last four were executed. The people 
beginning to sympathize with them as martyrs, the per- 
secution gradually relaxed. 

A Union of the Colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, 
New Haven, and Connecticut (see p. 69) was formed (1643) 
under the title of the United Colonies of New England. 
This famous league lasted more than forty years. The 



64 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1675 

object was protection against the Indians and against the 
encroachments of the Dutch and French settlers. 

King Philip's War. — During the life of Massasoit, Plym- 
outh enjoyed peace with the Indians, as did Jamestown dur- 
ing the life of the Powhatan. After Massasoit's death, his 
son Philip brooded with a jealous eye over the encroach- 
ments of the whites. With profound sagacity he planned 
a confederation of the Indian tribes against the intruders. 
The first blow fell on the people of Swansea, as they were 
quietly going home from church on Sunday, July 4, 1675. 
The settlers flew to arms, but Philip escaped, and soon 
excited the savages to fall upon the settlements in the 
Connecticut valley. The colonists fortified their houses 
with palisades, carried their arms with them into the fields 
when at work, and stacked them at the door when at 
church. The Narragansett Indians favored Philip, and 
seemed on the point of joining his alliance. They had 
gathered their winter's provisions, and fortified themselves 
in the midst of an almost inaccessible swamp. Fifteen 
hundred of the colonists accordingly attacked and de- 
stroyed this stronghold. In the spring the war broke out 
anew along a frontier of three hundred miles, and to 
within twenty miles of Boston. Nowhere fighting in the 
open field, but by ambuscade and skulking, the Indians 
kept the whole country in terror. Driven to desperation 
by their atrocities, the settlers hunted down the savages 
like wild beasts. Philip was chased from one hiding place 
to another. His family being captured at last, he fled, 
broken-hearted, to his old home on Mount Hope, Rhode 
Island, where he was shot by a faithless Indian. 

New England a Royal Province. — The Navigation Act 
(p. 56), which we have seen so unpopular in Virginia, was 
exceedingly oppressive in Massachusetts, which had a 



1684] MASSACHUSETTS 65 

thriving commerce. lu spite of the decree, the colony 
opened a trade with the West Indies. Tiie Royalists in 
England determined that this bold republican spirit 
should be quelled. The colony, stoutly insisting upon its 
rights under the charter, resisted the commissioners 
sent over to enforce the Navigation Act and the author- 
ity of the king; whereupon the charter was annulled 
and Massachusetts was made a royal province (1684). 
Charles II. died before his plan was completed, but his 
successor, James II., sent over Sir Edmund Andros as 
first royal governor of all New England (1686). Gov- 
ernor Andros carried things with a high hand. The 
New England colonies endured his oppression for three 
years, when, learning that his royal master was de- 
throned,^ the people rose against their petty tyrant and 
put him in jail. With true Puritan sobriety, they then 
quietly resumed their old forms of government. In 
Massachusetts, however, this lasted for only three years, 
when Sir William Phips came as royal governor over a 
province embracing Massachusetts, Plymouth, Maine, and 
Nova Scotia. From this time till the Revolution the 
enlarged colony of Massachusetts Bay was governed 
under a new charter ; but as its governor was appointed 
by the king, it was in some respects a royal province. 
There were many disputes between the governor and the 
colonial assembly, or "general court," as it was called, 
over the rights and powers claimed by each. 

Salem Witchcraft (1692). — A strange delusion known as 
the Salem witchcraft^ produced an intense excitement. 

1 The " English Revolution of 1688" resulted in the deposition of James II., the 
Stuart Mug, and the enthronement of William and Mary. 

2 A belief in witchcraft was at that time universal. Sir Matthew Hale, one of the 
most enlightened judges of England, repeatedly tried and condemned persons accused 
of witchcraft. Blackstone himself, at a later day, declared that to deny witchcraft 

B. HIST. u. s.— 5 



66 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1692 

The children of a minister near Salem performed pranks 
which could be explained only by supposing that they 
were under Satanic influence. Every effort was made to 
discover who had bewitched them. An Indian servant 
was flogged until she admitted herself to be guilty. Soon 
others were affected, and the terrible mania spread rapidly. 
Committees of examination were appointed and courts of 
trial were convened. The most improbable stories were 
credited. To express a doubt of witchcraft was to indicate 
one's own alliance with the evil spirit. Persons of the 
highest respectability — clergymen, magistrates, and even 
the governor's wife — were implicated. At last, after fifty- 
five persons had been tortured and twenty hanged, the 
people awoke to their folly, and the persecution ceased. 

III. MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 

Maine and New Hampshire were so intimately associated 
with Massachusetts that they have almost a common his- 
tory. Gorges (gor'jez) and Mason, about two years after 
the landing of the Pilgrims, obtained from the Council for 
New England the grant of a large tract of land which lay 
between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers. They estab- 
lished some small fishing stations at Dover and near 
Portsmouth, at the mouth of the Piscat'aqua River. This 
patent being afterwards dissolved, Mason took the country 
lying west of the Piscataqua, and named it New Hamp- 
shire ; Grorges took that lying east, and called it the prov- 

wasto deny revelation. Cotton Mather, the most prominent minister of the colony, 
was active in the rooting ont of this supposed crime. He publislied a book full of the 
most ridiculous witch stories. One judge who engaged in this i)orsecution was after- 
wards so deeply penitent that he observed a day of fasting in each year, and on the day 
of general fast rose in his place in the Old South Church at Boston, and in the presence 
of the co!)gregation handed to the pulpit a written confession acknowledging his error 
and praying for forgiveness. 



1677] NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 67 

ince of Maine.' Massachusetts, however, claimed this ter- 
ritory, and, to secure it, paid about six thousand dollars 
to the heirs of Gorges. Maine was not separated from 
Massachusetts till 1820. The feeble settlements of New 
Hampshire also placed themselves under the protection 
of Massachusetts. " Three times, either by their own con- 
sent or by royal authority, they were joined in one colony, 
and as often separated," until 1741, when New Hampshii-e 
finally became a distinct royal province ; and it so remained 
until the Revolution. 

IV. CONNECTICUT 

Settlement. — About eleven years after the Pilgrims 
landed, Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and others, 
obtained from the Earl of Warwick a transfer of the grant 
of the Connecticut valle}', which he had secured from the 
Council for New England. The Dutch claimed the terri- 
tory, and, before the English could take possession, built 
a fort at Hartford, and commenced traffic with the Indians. 
Some traders from Plymouth sailing up the river were 
stopped by the Dutch, who threatened to fire upon them. 
But they kept on and established a post at Windsor. 
Many people from Boston, attracted by the rich meadow 
lands, settled near. In the autumn of 1635, John Steele, 
one of the proprietors of Cambridge, led a pioneer com- 
}>any "out west," as it was then called, and laid the 
foundations of Hartford. The next year the main band, 
with their pastor, — Thomas Hooker, an eloquent and 
estimable man, — came, driving their flocks before them 

1 To distinguisli it from the islands along the coast, this country had been called 
the Mayne (main) land, which perhaps gave rise to its present name. New Hamj)- 
shire was so called from Hampshire in England, Mason's home. 



68 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1635 



through the wilderness. In the meantime, John Win- 
throp ' established a fort at the mouth of the river, and 




HOOKER'S BAND ON THE WAY TO CONNECTICUT. 

thus shut out the Dutch. The fort was named Saybrook, 
in honor of the proprietors. 

The Pequot War. — The colonists had no sooner become 
settled in their new home than the Pequot Indians en- 
deavored to persuade the Narragansetts to ^join them in a 
general attack upon the whites. Roger Williams, hearing 
of this and forgetting all the injuries he had received, on 
a stormy night sot out in his canoe for the Indian village. 

' Jobn Winthrop iippears in history witliout blemish. Highly educated and accom- 
plished, he was no less uprifrht and generous. lu the bloom of life, he left his brilliant 
prospects in the Old World to follow the fortunes of the New. When his father had 
made himself poor in nurturing the Massachusetts colony, this noble son gave up 
voluntarily his own large inheritance to " further the good work." It was through his 
personal influence and popularity at court that the liberal charter was procured from 
Charles II. which guaranteed freedom to Comiecticut (p. 69), 



1637] CONNECTICUT 69 

Though the Pequot messengers were present, he prevailed 
upon the old Narragansett chief to remain at home. So 
the Pequots lost their ally and were forced to fight alone. 
They commenced by murdering thirty colonists. Captain 
Mason, therefore, resolved to attack their stronghold on 
the Mystic River. His party approached the fort at day- 
break (June 5, 1G37). Aroused by the barking of a dog, 
the sleepy sentinel shouted, " Owanux ! Owanux ! " (The 
Englishmen!), but it was too late. The troops were 
already within the palisades. The Indians, rallying, made 
a fierce resistance, when Captain Mason, seizing a fire- 
brand, hurled it among the wigwams. The flames quickly 
swept through the encampment. The English themselves 
barely escaped. The few Indians who fled to the swamps 
were hunted down. The tribe perished in a day. 

The Three Colonies. — 1. The New Haven Colony was 
founded (1638) by a number of wealthy London families. 
They took the Bible for law, and only church members 
could vote. 2. The Connecticut Colony proper, com- 
prising Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor, adopted a 
written constitution in which it was agreed to give to all 
freemen the right to vote. This was the first instance in 
history of a written constitution framed by the people for 
the people. 3. The Saybeook Colony was at first gov- 
erned by the proprietors, but was afterwards sold to the 
Connecticut Colony. This reduced the three colonies to 
two. 

A Royal Charter was obtained (1662) which added the 
New Haven Colony to Connecticut, granted in" addition a 
strip of land lying south of Massachusetts and extending 
west across the whole continent, and guaranteed to all 
settlers the rights upon which the Connecticut colonists 
had agreed. This was a precious document, since it gavo 



70 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1687 

them almost independence, and was the most favorable 
yet granted to any colony. Twenty-five years after, Gov- 
ernor Audros, marching from Boston over the route where 
the pious Hooker had led his little flock fifty years before, 
came " glittering with scarlet and lace " into the assembly 
at Hartford, and demanded the charter. A protracted 
debate ensued. Tradition loves to relate that, as the 
people crowded around to take a last look at this guaran- 
tee of their liberties, suddenly the lights were extin- 
guished; on their being relighted, the charter was gone; 
Captain Wadsworth had seized it, escaped through the 
crowd, and hidden it in the hollow of a tree, famous ever 
after as the Charter Oak.^ However, Andros pronounced 
the charter government at an end. " Finis " was written 
at the close of the minutes of the assembly's last meeting. 
When the governor was so summarily deposed in Bos- 
ton (p. 65), the people brought the charter from its hiding 
place, the assembly reconvened, and the " finis " disap- 
peared. In fact, Connecticut governed itself under this 
charter till long after the Revolution. 

V. RHODE ISLAND 

Settlement. — Roger Williams settled Providence Planta- 
tion in 1G36, the year in which Hooker came to Hartford. 
Other exiles from Massachusetts followed,^ among them 
the celebrated Mrs. Hutchinson. A party of these pur- 
chased the island of Aquiday (Rhode Island) and estab- 
lished the Rhode Island Plantation. Roger Williams 

• Tlio story of the Charter Oak is denied by some, who claim that contemporary 
history does not mention it, and that probably Andros seized the charter, while the 
colonists bud previously made a copy. 

2 Persecuted refugees fnmi every quarter flocked to Providence; and WilHauis 
shared equally with all the lands he had obtained, reserviuf; to himself only two 
small fields which, on his first arrival, he had planted with his own hands. 



1647] RHODE ISLAND, NEW YORK 71 

stamped upon these colonies his favorite idea of religious 
toleration, i.e. that the civil power has no right to inter- 
fere with the religious opinions of men. 

Charters. — The colonists wished to join the New Eng- 
land Union, but were refused, ostensibly on the plea that 
they had no charter. Williams accordingly visited Eng- 
land and obtained a charter uniting the two plantations. 
On his retui-n, the people met, elected their oflQcers, and 
(1647) agreed on a set of laws guaranteeing freedom of 
faith and worship to all — " the first legal declaration of 
liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America." 
This colony, however, was never admitted to the New 
England Union. The other colonies continued to look on 
it with disfavor, and Massachusetts and Connecticut each 
claimed the right to govern its territory. A new charter 
was secured for Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 
(1G63), under which the colony governed itself almost 180 
years. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

John Smith and the Pilgrims. — Fiske'a Beginnings of New England, pp. 78-87. 
King: Philip's AVar,— Fiske's Beginnings of New England, pp. 211-236. 

VI. NEW YORK 

Settlement. — Soon after the discovery of the Hudson, 
Dutch ships began to visit the river to traffic in furs with 
the Indians. Afterwards (1621), the West India Company 
obtained a grant of New Netherland, and under its patron- 
age permanent settlements were soon made at New Amster- 
dam^ and at Fort Orange (Albany). The company al- 
lowed persons who should plant a colony of fifty settlers to 

' Some huts were built by Dutch traders on Manbattan Island, at the mouth of the 
Hudson, in 1613, and a trading post was established in 1615. In the latter year Fort 
Nassau was completed south of the present site of Albany. 



72 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1626 



select and buy land of the Indians, which it was agreed 
should descend to their heirs forever. These persons were 
called "patroons" (patrons) of the manor. 

The Four Dutch Governors (1626-64).^— The early his- 
tory of New York is marked by a bloody war with the 
Indians (1643-45) while Kieft was governor, and by diffi- 
culties with the Swedes on the Delaware and with the 
English on the Connecticut.^ These disturbances are 

monotonous enough 
in the recital, but 
doubtless thrilled 
the blood of the 
early Kniekerbock- . 
ers. Peter Stuy- 
vesant, who had lost 
a leg in the service 
of Holland, was the 
last and ablest of 
the four Dutch gov- 
ernors. Ho agreed 
with Connecticut 
upon the boundary 
line (1(350), and tak- 
ing an armed force, 
marched upon the 
Swedes, who at once submitted to him. But the old gov- 
ernor hated democratic institutions, and was teri-ibly vexed 
in this wise. There were some English in the colony, and 

1 Peter Minuit, 1626-32; Wouter van Twiller, 1033-38; Sir William Kieft, 1038-47 ; 
Peter Stuy'TC&aiit, 1047-64. Peter Minnit, the first frovernor, bouplit IMaiihattan Island 
of the Indians for floods valued iit $24. After lii.s recall from New Netberland he 
■went to Sweden, and led out the Swedish colony that settled on tlie Delaware (j). 76). 

- These disputes arose from the fact that the Dutch claimed the territory bordering 
and lying between the Delaware and the Connecticut, on which the Swedes and the 
English were settling. 




THE MIDDLE COLONIES. 



16&4] 



NEW YORK 



73 



they longed for the rights of self-government which the 
Connecticut people enjoyed. They kept demanding these 
privileges and talking of them to their Dutch neighbors. 
In August, 1664, an English fleet came to anchor in the 
harbor and demanded the surrender of New Netherland in 
the name of the Duke of York, who had received a grant 
of this territory from his brother, King Charles II. Stout- 




STUTVESANT IN NEW AMSTERDAM (NEW YORlv). 

hearted old Peter pleaded with his council to fight. But 
in vain. They rather liked the idea of English rule. The 
surrender was signed, and at last the reluctant governor 
attached his name. When the English flag was raised over 
Manhattan Island, the colony and the town were named 
New York in honor of the proprietor. 



74 THE THIETEEN COLONIES [1673 

The English Governors discappointed the people by not 
granting them their coveted rights. A remonstrance 
against being taxed without representation was ])urned 
by the hangman. So that when, after nine years of 
English rule, a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor, the 
people went back quietly nnder their old rulers. But the 
next year, peace being restored between England and 
Holland, New Amsterdam became New York again. 
Thus ended the Dutch rule in the colonies. Andros, who 
twelve years after played the tyrant in New England, 
was the n^xt goveiiior; but he ruled so arbitrarily that 
he was called home. Under his successor, Dongan, an 
assembly of the representatives of the people was called, 
by permission of the Duke of York (1683). This was but 
a transient gleam of civil freedom, for two years after, 
when the Duke of York became James II., king of Eng- 
land, he forgot all his promises, forbade legislative assem- 
blies, prohibited printing presses, and annexed the colony 
to New England. When, however, Andros was driven 
from Boston, Nicholson, his lieutenant and apt tool of 
tyranny in New York, was compelled to flee. Captain Leis- 
ler (lis'ler), supported by the democracy but bitterly op- 
posed by the anstocracy, thereupon administered affairs 
until the arrival of Governor Sloughter (slaw'tor). Hav- 
ing for(dbly resisted the governor's lieutenant, Leisler was 
arrested and tried for treason. Sloughter was unwilling 
to execute him, but Leisler's enemies made the governor 
drunk, obtained his signature to the death warrant, and be- 
fore he became sober enough to repent, Leisler was no more. 

From this time till the Revolution the struggles of the 
people with the royal governors for their rights devel- 
oped the spirit of liberty and paved the way for that 
eventful crisis. 



1618] NEW YOEK, new JERSSY 75 

VII. NEW JERSEY 

Settlement. — The present State of New Jersey was em- 
braced iu the territory of New Netherhind, and the Dutch 
seem to have had a trading post at Bergen as early as 
1618. Soon after New Netherland passed into the hands 
of the Duke of York, he gave the land ^ between the Hud- 
son and the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
Carteret. In 1664 a company from Long Island and 
New England settled at Elizabethtown, which they named 
after Carteret's wife. This was the first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement in the State. 

East and West Jersey. — In 1676 New Jersey was divided 
between the proprietors, by the line shown on the map, 
page 72. Lord Bei'keley had already sold his share to 
two English Quakers. This part was called West Jersey. 
A company of Quakers soon settled at Burlington. Others 
followed, and thus West Jersey became a Quaker colony. 
Sir George Carteret's portion was called East Jersey. 
After his death it was sold to William Penn and a num- 
ber of other Quakers, who were then in control of West 
Jersey.^ 

New Jersey United. — Constant disputes arose out of 
the land titles. The proprietors finally (1702) surrendered 
their rights of government to the English crown, and the 
whole of New Jersey was united with New York under 
one governor, but with a separate assembly. Thirty-six 
years after, at the earnest request of the people, New 
Jersey was set apart as a distinct royal province. 

• This tract was called New Jersey in honor of Carteret, who had been governor of 
the Island of Jersey iu the English Channel. 

2 East Jersey was settled, however, largely by Puritans and Scotcli Presbyterians. 
The latter, having refused to accept the English form of religion, had been bitterly per- 
secuted. Fleeing their native country, they found an asylum in this favored land. 



76 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1638 

VIII., IX. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 

Settlement. — The first permauent settlement in Dela- 
ware was made near Wilmington (1638), by the Swedes, 
on a tract which they called New Sweden. They also 
established the first settlement in Pennsylvania, a few 
miles below Philadelphia. These settlements were subse- 
quently conquered by the Dutch, but they continued to 
prosper long after Swedish and Dutch rule had ended. 

William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, was a cele- 
brated English Quaker.' He obtained from Charles II. a 
grant of land west of the Delaware (1681). This tract 
Peim named Sylvania, but the king insisted upon calling 
it Pennsylvania (Penn's Woods), in honor of William 
Penn's father. The Duke of York added to this grant the 
present State of Delaware, which for many years was 
called " the three lower counties on the Delaware." Penn 
wished to form a refuge for his Quaker brethren, who 
were bitterly persecuted in England. He at once sent 
over large num))ers, as many as two thousand in a single 
year. In 1682 ho came himself, and was received by the 
settlers with the greatest cordiality and respect. 

' The Quakers, avoiding unraeaninp forms, aimed to lead purely spiritual lives. 
Their usual worship was conducted in soleiuu silence, each soul for itself. They took 
no oath, made no compliiiieiits, removed not the hat to king or ruler, and said " thee" 
and "thou" to both friend .and foe. Every day was to them a holy day, and the 
Sabbath was simply a day of rest. 

William Penn became a Quaker while in college at Oxford. Refusing to wear the 
customary student's gown, he with others violently assaulted some fellow-students 
and stripped them of their robes. For this he was expelled. Ilis father would not 
allow him to return home, but afterwards relented and sent him to Paris, Cork, and 
other cities, to soften his Quaker peculiarities. After several unhappy quarrels, his 
father proposed to overlook all else if he would only consent to doff his hat to the 
king, the Duke of York, and himself. Penn still refusing, he was again turned out 
of doors. Ho was several times imprisoned for his religious extremes. On the death 
of his fatlier, to whom he had once more been reconciled, he inherited a fortune. In 
167C he became part owner of West Jersey. He took the territory which forms Penn- 
sylvania in payment of a debt of £16,000 due his fatlier from the crown. 



1683] 



PENNSYLVANIA 



77 



Philadelphia Founded. — The year following (1683) Penn 
purchased land of the Swedes, and laid out a city which he 
named Philadelphia, a name signifying hrotlierly love. It 
was in the midst of the forest, yet within a year it con- 
tained 100 houses; in two years it numbered over 2000 
inhabitants ; and in three years it gained more than New 
York had in half a century. 

The Great Law was a code agreed upon by the legisla- 
tive assembly which Penn called from among the settlers 
soon after his arrival. It made faith in Christ a necessary 




Painting by Benjamin West. 



PENN'S TREATY WITU THE INDIANS, 



qualification for voting and officeholding, but also pro- 
vided that no one believing in " Almighty God " should be 
molested in his religious views. The Quakers, having 
been persecuted themselves, did not celebrate their liberty 
by persecuting others. Penn himself surrendered the 
most of his power to the people. His highest ambition 
seemed to be to advance their interests. 



78 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1683 

Penn's Treaty with the Indians possesses a romantic 
interest. He met them under a large elm tree* near 
Philadelphia. The savages were touched by his gentle 
words and kindly bearing. "We will live in love with 
William Penn and his children," said they, "as long as 
the sun and moon shall shine."" 

Penn's Return. — Penn returned to England (1684), leav- 
ing the colony fairly established. His benevolent spirit 
shone forth in his parting words: "Dear friends, my love 
salutes you all." 

Delaware. — " The three lower counties on the Delaware," 
being greatly offended by the action of the council which 
Penn had left to govern in his absence, set up for them- 
selves. Penn " sorrowfully " consented to their action, 
appointed a deputy governor over them, and afterwards 
granted them a separate assembly. Pennsylvania and 
Delaware, however, remained under one governor until 
the Revolution. 

Penn's Heirs, after his death (1718), became proprietors 
of the flourishing colony he had established. It was ruled 
by deputies whom they appointed, and who had many 
quarrels with the legislative assemblies elected by the 
people. Finally, in 1779, the State of Pennsylvania 
bought out the claims of the Penn family by the payment 
of about half a million of dollars. 

Mason and Dixon's Line. — A difficulty having arisen 
with Maryland about boundaries, it was settled by a com- 

1 It was blown down in isio. A monuinent now marks the spot. " Wo meet," said 
Penn, "on tbc broad pathway of good faitli and good will; no advantage shall be 
taken on either side, but all shall be opeuneas and love. The friendship between 
you and me I will not compare to a chain; for that the rains might rust or the 
falling tree might break. We are the same as if one man's body were to be divided 
into two parts ; wo are all one flesh and blood." 

2 " It was the only treaty never sworn to, and the only one never broken." On 
every hand the Indians waged relentless war with the colonies, but they never shed 
a drop of Quaker blood. 



1763] DELAWARE, MARYLAND 79 

promise, and the line was run by two surveyors named 
Mason and Dixon (1763-67). This " Mason and Dixon's 
Line" afterwards became famous as the division between 
the slave and the free States. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

New Netlierland. — Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies, vol. i. pp. 96-129. 
Pennsylvania.— Fiske's Diilch and Quaker Colonies, vol. ii. pp. 147-167. 



X. MARYLAND 

Settlement. — Lord Baltimore (Cecil Calvert)/ a Catholic, 
was anxious to secure for the friends of his church a refuge 
from the persecutions which they were then suffering in 
England. He accordingly obtained from King Charles I. 
a grant of land lying north of the Potomac. The first 
settlement was made (1634) by his brother, at an Indian 
village which he called St. Marys, near the mouth of the 
Potomac. 

The Charter was very different from that granted to Vir- 
ginia, since it gave to all freemen a voice in making the 
laws. An assembly, called in accordance with this pro- 
vision, passed (1649) the celebrated Toleration Act, which 
confirmed to all Christians liberty to worship God accord- 
ing to the dictates of their own conscience. Maryland, 
like Ehode Island, was an asylum for the persecuted. 

Civil Wars.— 1. Clayhorne's Rehelllon (1635).— The Vir- 
ginia colony claimed that Lord Baltimore's grant covered 

1 His father, George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, with this same design had 
attempted to plant a colony in Newfoundland. But having failed on account of the 
severity of the climate, he visited Virginia. WTien he found that the Catholics were 
there treated with great harshness, he returned to England, took out a grant of land, 
and bestowed tipon it, in honor of the queen, the name Mary's Land (Terra Marim). 
Before the patent had received the great seal of the king, Lord Baltimore died. Hia 
son, Inheriting the father's noble and benevolent views, secured the grant himself and 
carried out the philanthropic scheme. 



80 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1635 

territory belonging to Virginia. Clayborne, a member of 
the Jamestown council, was especially obstinate in the 
matter. He had established two trading posts in Maiyland, 
which he prepared to defend by force of ai'ms. A bloody 
skirmish ensued in which his party was beaten. Clayborne, 
however, fled to Virginia, and, going to England, appealed 
to King Charles I. for redress. But the final decision fully 
sustained the rights of Lord Baltimore under the charter. 
In 1G45, however, Clayborne came back to Maryland, 
raised a rebellion, and drove Governor Calvert, in his turn, 
out of the colony. The governor at last raised a strong 
force, and Clayborne fled. This ended the contest. 

2. The Protestants and the Catholics. — The Protestants, 
having obtained a majority in the Maryland assembly, 
made a most ungrateful use of their power. They refused 
to acknowledge the hereditary rights of the proprietor, 
assailed his religion, excluded Catholics from the assembly, 
and even declared them outside the protection of the law. 
Civil war ensued. For years the victory alternated. At 
one time two governments, one Protestant, the other Cath- 
olic, were sustained. In 1691 Lord Baltimore was entirely 
deprived of his rights as proprietor, and Maryland became 
a royal province. The Church of England was established, 
and the Catholics were again disfranchised in the very 
province they had planted. In 1715 the fourth Lord Bal- 
timore recovered the government, and religious toleration 
was restored. Maryland remained under this administra- 
tion until the Revolution. 

, XL, XII. THE CAROLINAS 

Settlement Lord Clar'endon and other noblemen ob- 
tained (1G63 and 1665) from Charles IT. a grant of a vast 



1663] 



NOETH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA 



81 



36%0- 



tract south of Virginia, and extending across the continent 
from sea to sea. It was called, in honor of the king, Caro- 
lina.' Two permanent settlements were soon made. 

1. The Al'bemarle^ Colony was the name given to a 
plantation already settled by people who had pushed 
through the wilderness from Virginia. A governor from 
their own number was appointed over them. They were 
then left in quiet to 
enjoy their liber- 
ties and forget the 
world.^ 

2. The Carteret 
Colony was estab- 
lished in 1670 by 
English immigrants. 
They began a settle- 
ment on the banks 
of the Ashley, but 
afterwards removed 
it to the "ancient 
groves covered with 
yellow jessamine " 
which marked the site of the present city of Charleston. 
The growth of this colony was rapid from the first. 
Thither came shiploads of Dutch from New York, dissat- 
isfied with the English rule and attracted by the genial 
climate. The Huguenots (French Protestants), hunted 
from their homes, here found a Southern welcome.^ 

1 This name, it will be remembered, is the same that Eibaut (p. 35) gave his fort 
in honor of Charles IX. of France. 

2 Both colonies were naiued after prominent proprietors of the grant. 

3 Except when rent day came. Then they were called upon to pay to the EugUsh 
proprietors a halfpenny an acre. 

*In Charleston alone there were at one time as many as 16,000 Huguenots. They 
added whole streets to the city. Their severe morality, marked charity, elegant man- 
B. HIST. u. s.— 6 




CAROLINA BY THE GRANT OF 16G5. 



82 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1669 



The Grand Model was a form of government for the colo- 
nies prepared by Lord Shaftesbury and the celebrated 
philosopher John Locke. It was a magnificent scheme. 
The wilderness was to be divided into vast estates, with 
which hereditary titles were to be gi-anted. But the 
model was aristocratic, while the people were democratic. 
It granted no rights of self-government, while the settlers 
came into the wilderness for the love of liberty. This 
was not the soil on which vain titles and empty pomp 




BLACKBEAKD 



could flourish. To make the Grand Model a success, it 
would have been necessary to transform the log cabin 
into a baronial castle, and the independent settlers into 
armed retainers. The attempt to introduce the scheme 
arousing violent opposition, it was at length abandoned. 



nere, and tbrifty habits made tbeni a most desirable acqulBltlon. Their descendants 
aro eminently honorable, and have borne a proud part in the establlehment of our 
republic. 



1670] NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA 83 

Pirates. — The Carolina colonies were founded at a time 
when piracy in and near the West Indies was at its height. 
The freebooters or buccaneers, as they were called, in- 
cluded many hundreds of men, of all nationalities hostile to 
Spain ; and at first their attacks were made against Span- 
ish ships and towns only. They had strongholds and hid- 
ing places in Haiti and some other islands, and along the 
Carolina coasts. In the early days the Carolina colonists 
favored the pirates, as they were good customers for prod- 
uce of various kinds ; but before long the pirates began 
to capture ships trading with Charleston, and then the 
colonists helped make war on them.' By 1730 the pirates 
were extirpated. 

Indian Troubles. — War having broken out with the Tus- 
carora Indians (1711), the settlers of both the Carolina 
colonies united in expelling the tribe from the country.^ 

North and South Carolina Separated. — The two colonies,— 
the northern, or Albemarle, and the southern, or Car- 
teret, — being so remote from each other, had from the 
beginning separate governors, though they remained one 
province. There was constant friction between the set- 
tlers and the proprietors. The people were jealous. The 
proprietors were arbitrary, Eents, taxes, and disputed 

'One of the most noted pirates was Robert Thatch, commonly called Blacbbeard. 
He once took and robbed some ships as they sailed out from Charleston, and compelled 
the governor to give him a full line of supplies as ransom for the captured passengers, 
on pain of their instant death. This was his last great exploit, however, for a little 
later in the same year (1718) he was billed in a flghtwith ships from Virginia. 

William Kidd, a New York shipmaster, was once sent out to cruise against sea 
robbers. He turned pirate himself and became the most noted of them all. Return- 
ing from his cruise, he was arrested in Boston. He was carried to England, tried, and 
hanged. Some goods and treasure which he had buried on Gardincrs Island (just east 
of Long Island) were recovered. He was believed to have buried more of his ill-gotten 
riches on the coast of Long Lslaud or the banks of the Hudson, and these localities 
have been oftentimes searched by credulous persons seeking for Kidd's treasure. 

2 The Tuscaroras sought refuge in the country of the Five Nations, or Iroquois 
(p. 12), and a few years later were admitted into this Indian confederacy, which thus 
became the Si:s Nations. 



84 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1729 

rights were plentiful sources of irritation. Things kept 
on in this unsettled way until (1729) the discouraged pro- 
prietors ceded to the crown their right of government 
and seven eighths of the soil. The two colonies were 
separated, and they remained royal provinces until the 
Revolution. 



XIII. GEORGIA 

Georgia, the last colony of the famous thirteen, 
was planned in the same year that Washington was 
born, and after Virginia had been settled for 125 years. 




OGLETHORPE AND THE INDIAN CHIEF. 



James O'glethorpe, a warm-hearted English officer, having 
conceived the Idea of founding a refuge for debtors im- 



1732] GEORGIA 85 

prisoned under the severe laws of that time, naturally- 
turned to America, even then the home of the oppressed. 
He formed a company of twenty-one men, to whom King 
George II. granted, "in trust for the poor," a tract of 
land between the Savannah and Altamaha' rivers, and 
stretching westward across the continent. This colony 
was called Georgia, in honor of the king. Oglethorpe 
made a settlement at Savannah in 1733.^ 

A general interest was excited in England, and many 
charitable people gave liberally to promote the enterprise. 
More emigrants followed, including, as in the other col- 
onies, many who sought religious or civil liberty.^ The 
trustees limited the size of a man's farm, did not allow 
women to inherit land, and forbade tbe importation of 
rum^ or of slaves. These restrictions were irksome, and 
great discontent prevailed. At last the trustees, wearied 
by the frequent complaints of the colonists, surrendered 
their charter to the crown. Georgia remained a royal 
province until the Eevolution. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Pirates.— Fiske's Old Vlrffinia, vol. ii. pp. 361-369. 

1 He made peace with the Indians, conciliating them by presents and by his kindly 
disposition. One of the chiefs gave him in return a buffalo's skin with the head and 
feathers of an eagle painted on the inside of it. " The eagle," said the chief, " signilles 
swiftness ; and the buffalo, strength. The English are swift as a bird to fly over the 
vast seas, and as strong as a beast before their enemies. The eagle's feathers are soft 
and signify love ; the buffalo's skin is warm and means protection ; therefore love and 
protect our families." 

2 The gentle Moravians and sturdy Scotch Highlanders were among the number, 
and proved valuable acquisitions to the colony. The former had fled from Austria 
for conscience' sake. Lutherans from Salzburg, Austria, founded a colony in the pine 
forests and named it Ebenezer. When John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, came 
to America as a missionary with his brother Charles, he was greatly charmed with the 
fervent piety of this simple people. The celebrated George Whitefleld afterwards 
founded at Savannah an orphan asylum, which he supported by contributions from the 
immense audiences which his wonderful eluquence attracted to his open-air meetings. 

3 Rum was obtained from the West Indies in exchange for lumber. Hence this law 
prevented that trade. 



86 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1689 



XIV. INTERCOLONIAL WARS 



I. KING WILLIAM'S WAR (1689-97) 

Cause. — War having broken out in Europe between Eng- 
land and France, their colonies in America were forced into 
the quarrel. The Indians of Canada and Maine aided the 
French, and the Iroquois helped the English (see p. 37). 

Attacks upon the Colonists. — In the depth of winter, 
war parties of the French and Indians, coining down on 
their snowshoes from Canada through the forest, fell upon 

several of the ex- 
posed settlements 
of New York and 
Now England and 
committed horrible 
barbarities. Schen- 
ectady (sken ec'ta- 
dy), unsuspecting 
and defenseless, 
was attacked at 
midnight. Men, 
women, and (chil- 
dren were dragged from their beds and tomahawked. The 
few who escaped, half naked, made their way through the 
snow of that fearful night to Albany.' 

I The histories of the time abound In thrilling stories of Indian adventure. One 
day in March, IG-JT, HaverbilKhiiver il), Mass., was attacked. Mr. Diistin was at work 
In the field. Hurrying to his house, he brought out his seven children, and bid- 
ding them "run ahead," slowly retreated, keeping the Indians back with Ins gun. He 
thus brought ofT his little flock in safety. His wife, who was unalde to escape with 
him, was dragged into captivity. The party that had captured Mrs. Dustin marched 
many days through the forest, and at length reached an island in the Merrimac. Here 
she resolved to escape. .\ white boy, who hail been taken prisoner before, found out 
from his Indian master, at Mrs. Dustin's request, where to strike a blow that would 
produce instant death, and how to take ofl" a scalp. Having learned these facts, in the 




NORTHERN COLONIES IN THE INTERCOLONIAL WAR.S. 



1690] KING WILLIAM'S WAR, QUEEN ANNE'S WAR 87 

Attacks by the Colonists. — Aroused by such scenes of 
savage ferocity, the colonists organized two expeditions: 
one under Phips (soon after governor of Massachusetts, 
p. 65) against Port Royal, Acadia ; and the other, a com- 
bined land and naval attack on Canada. The former was 
successful, and secured, it is said, plunder enough to pay 
the expenses of the expedition. The latter was a dis- 
astrous failure, owing to the superior ability of Count 
Fron'tenac, governor of Canada, who managed the war 
on the side of France. 

Peace. — The war lasted eight years. It was ended by 
the treaty of Ryswick (riz'wik), one clause of which 
provided that England and France should each hold the 
territory it had at the beginning of the struggle. 

2. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-13) 

Cause. — England having declared war agamst France 
and Spain, hostilities again broke out between their col- 
onies. The Iroquois or Five Nations had made a treaty 
with the French, and so took no part in the contest. 
Their neutrality protected New York from invasion. 
Consequently, the brunt of the war fell on New England. 

Attacks upon the Colonists. — The New England fron- 
tier was again desolated.^ Remote settlements were aban- 
doned. The people betook themselves to palisaded houses, 
and worked their farms with their guns always at hand. 

uight she awoke the boy and her nurse, and arranged their parts. The task was soon 
done. Seizing each a tomahawk, they killed ten of the sleeping Indians ; only one 
escaped. She then scalped the dead bodies in order to prove her story when she should 
reach home, and hastened to the bank, where, taking one canoe and destroying the 
others, they descended the river and soon rejoined her family. 

I On the last night of Feliruary, 1704, a party of about 350 French and Indians 
reached a pine forest near Deerfleld, Mass. Toward morning, the stealthy invaders 
rushed upon the defenseless slumberers, who awoke from their dreams to death 
or captivity. Leaving the blazing village with forty-seven dead .bodies to be 



88 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1702 

Attacks by the Colonists.— 1. In the South. — South Caro- 
lina made a fruitless expedition against her old Spanish 
enemies at St. Augustine (1702).^ 

2. In the North. — Port Ro^al, Nova Scotia, was again 
wrested from the French by a combined force of English 
and colonial troops. In honor of the queen, its name was 
changed to Annap'olis. Another expedition sailed against 
Quebec, but many of the ships were dashed upon the rocks 
in the St. Lawrence, and nearly 1000 men perished. Thus 
ended the second attempt to conquer Canada. 

Peace. — The war lasted eleven years. It was ended by 
the treaty of Utrecht (u'trekt), which, besides settling 
many European questions, provided that Acadia should 
belong to Great Britain. 

3. KING GEORGE'S WAR 2 (1744-48) 

Capture of Louisburg. — War having broken out between 
Great Britain and France, the flame was soon kindled in 
the New World. The only event of importance was the 

consumed amid the wreck, they theu started back with their train of 112 captives 
through the snow. The horrors of tliat march can never be told. The groan of help- 
less exhaustion, or the wail of suffering childhood, was instantly stilled by the pitiless 
tomahawk. Mrs. Williams, the feeble wife of the minister, had remeuibered her 
Bible in the inidst of surprise, and comforted herselc' with its promises till, her 
strength failing, she commended her five captive chihlren to God, and bent to the 
savage blow of the war-ax. One of her daughters grew up in captivity, embraced 
the Catholic faith, and became the wife of a chief. Years after, she visited her friends 
in Deerfleld. The whole village joined in a fast for lier deliverance, but her heart 
loved best her children, and she went back to the tiros of her Indian wigwam. 

' Four years after, the French and Spanish sent a fleet from Havana against Charles- 
ton. The people, however, valiantly defended themselves, and soon drove off their 
assailants. 

-' Tliis war was preceded by what is known as the "Spanish War," which grew 
out of difficulties then existing between England and Spain. In America, Governor 
Oglethorpe invested (1740) St. Augustine with a force of 2000 men, but the strength 
of the Spanish garrison, and the loss by sickness, caused the att^'inpt to be 
abandoned. The Spaniards, in their turn, sent (1742) an expedition against (Jeorgia. 
By means of a letter which Governor Oglethorpe caused to fall into the hands of the 
Spaniards, they were made to believe that he expected large reenforcements. Being 



1745] KING GEORGE'S WAR 89 

capture of Louisburg/ on the island of Cape Breton, by a 
combined force of British and colonial troops. The latter 
did most of the fighting, but the former took the glory 
and the booty. Peace being made in 1748 by the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle (aks lah shah pel'), England gave back 
Louisburg to the French. The boundaries between the 
French and the English colonies were left undecided, and 
so the germ of a new war remained. 

4. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-63) 

Cause. — The English occupied at this time a narrow 
strip along the coast, 1000 miles in length. It was like a 
string to the great bow of the French territory, which 
reached around from Quebec to New Orleans. Both 
nations, overlooking the real proprietors, the Indians, 
claimed the region west of the Appalachian Mountains, 
along the Ohio River. In 1749 Celoron (sa lo roN') was 
sent by the French to take formal possession of the Ohio 
valley; along the course of the Ohio he buried a number 
of lead plates on which the French claim was inscribed. 
The next year the British king granted to the Ohio Com- 
pany half a million acres in the valley, on condition of 
settling the territory. The three previous intercolonial 
wars had engendered bitter hatred, and occasions for 
quarrel were abundant. The French had over sixty mili- 
tary posts guarding the long line of their possessions. 
They seized the English surveyors along the Ohio. They 

frigbtened, they burned tbe fort tbey bad captured, and fled in baste. Tbe Englisb 
colonies also fumisbed about 4000 men for an expedition against tbe Spanish settle- 
ments in the West Indies ; but only a few hundred returned from this disastrous 
enterprise. 

1 Louisburg was called tbe " Gibraltar of America." Its fortifications were exten- 
sive, and cost upward of $5,000,000. When the place was captured, the colonial troops 
tbeniselves were astonished at what they had done. The achievement called forth 
great rejoicing throughout the country, especially in New England, and had an influ- 
ence in the Revolutionary War thirty years after. 



90 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1753 



broke up a British post on the Miam'i. They built a 
fort on Lake Erie at Presque Isle (presk eel'), near the 
present city of Erie ; another, Fort le Boeuf (P buf), at the 
present town of Waterford ; and a thii'd, Fort Venan'go, 
about forty miles south, at the mouth of French Creek 
(p. 92). These encroachments awakened the liveliest 
solicitude on the part of the English colonists. 

Washington's Journey. — Dinwiddle, lioutenant govern- 
or of Virginia, accordingly sent a message by George 




IN Ai 1 (ii;i 1.1. Kii.ri , 



Washington, then a young man of tweiity-oue, to the 
French commander of these forts, asking their removal. 
Washington, after a perilous journey through the wilder- 
ness, found the French officer at Fort Venango loud and 



1753] * FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 91 

boastful. At Fort le Boenf, the commandant treated him 
with great respect, but, like a true soldier, refused to 
discuss claims, and declared himself under orders which 
he should obey. It was clear that France was determined 
to hold the territory claimed under the discoveries of the 
heroic La Salle and Marquette. Washington's return 
through the wilderness, a distance of 400 miles, was full 
of peril.^ At last he reached home unharmed and de- 
livered the French commandant's reply. 

War Opens. — Early the next spring (1754), the French, 
at the fork of the Monongahela and the Allegheny, drove 
off a party of English traders and erected a fort, which 
was called Duquesne (du kan'). Soon, among the black- 
ened stumps, corn and barley were growing on the present 
site of Pittsburg. In the meantime, part of Colonel Fry's 
regiment of Virginia troops, under Washington, had been 
sent to occupy this important point. Learning that the 
French had anticipated them, Washington hastened for- 
ward with a reconnoitering party. Jumonville (zhu moN- 
veel'), who was hiding among the trees and rocks with a 
detachment of French troops, waiting an opportunity to 
attack him, was himself surprised and slain.^ Washing- 
ton now retreated to the Great Meadows, where he re- 

1 The streams were swollen. Sleet was falling, and freezing as it fell. The horses 
gave out, and ho was forced to proceed on foot. With only one companion, he 
quitted the usual path, and, with the compass as his guide, struck boldly out through 
the forest. An Indian lying in wait lired at him only a few paces off, but, missing, 
was captured. Attempting to cross the Allegheny on a rude raft, they were caughf 
between large masses of ice floating down the rapid current of the midcbannel. 
Washington thrust out his pole to check the speed, but was jerked into the foaming 
water. Swimming to an island, he barely saved his life. Fortimately, in the morning 
the river was frozen over, and he escaped on the ice. 

-Washington's word of command to fire upon that skulking foe (May 2S, 1754) was 
the opening of the campaign. Washington himself, it is said, fired the first shot of 
. that long and bloody war. The first three intercolonial wars had been merely incidental 
to wars in Europe. This French and Indian War, on the contrary, began in America. 
It soon spread to the Old World, where it involved most of the countries of Europe 
and was known there as the Seven Years* War. 



1754] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 93 

ceived some reenforcements, and built a rude stockade, 
aptly named Fort Necessity. Here he was attacked by 
a large force of French and Indians, and, after a severe 
conflict, was compelled to capitulate. 

Franklin's Plan of Union. — At the beginning of this war 
the British colonies numbered many times more inhabit- 
ants than did Canada ; yet their military power was less. 
Canada was ruled by one governor, who exercised all the 
powers of government. But the different English colo- 
nies were distracted by jealousies, and in many cases the 
governor and the colonial assembly distrusted and ham- 
pered each other. These difficulties had appeared in the 
previous intercolonial wars, and were well known. To 
avoid them, and secure harmonious action of all the colo- 
nies, Franklin proposed a Plan of Union at a congress of 
delegates that met in Albany (1754) to treat with the 
Iroquois. This plan provided for a central government 
that could levy taxes and carry on war. Though approved 
by the congress, it was rejected by the colonies, as each 
was unwilling to surrender any of its powers. 

The Five Objective Points of the War. — 1. Fort Du- 
QUESNE was the key to the region west of the Appala- 
chians, and so long as the French held it, Virginia and 
Pennsylvania were exposed to Indian attacks. 2. The 
French possession of Louisburg and part of Acadia threat- 
ened New England, and gave control over the Newfound- 
land fisheries. Privateers harbored there, to prey on Eng- 
lish ships. 3. Crown Point and Ticondero'ga controlled 
the route to and from Canada by the way of Lakes George 
and Champlain. 4. Fort Niagara lay on the portage 
between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and thus protected 
the great fur trade of the Upper Lakes and the West. 5. 
Quebec, the strongest fortification in Canada, gave control 



94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1755 

of the St. Lawrence, and largely decided the possession 
of that province. 

We thus see why these points were so persistently at- 
tacked by the British, and so obstinately defended by the 
French. We shall speak of them in order. 
- I. Fort Duquesne. — The First Expedition (1755) was 
commanded by Greneral Braddock. Washington, who 
acted as an aid-de-camp, warned him of the dangers of 
savage warfare, but his suggestions were received with 
t?^tempt. The column arrived within seven miles of the 
fort, marching along the Monongahela in regular array, 
drums beating and colors flying. Suddenly they came 
upon the Indians, who immediately concealed themselves 
in the thick underbrush on each side and at once opened 
fire. The terrible war whoop resounded on every hand. 
The British regulars huddled together, and, frightened, 
fired b}^ platoons, at random, into rocks and trees. The 
Virginia troops alone sprang into the forest and fought 
the savages in Indian style. Washington seemed every- 
where present. An Indian chief with his braves specially 
singled him out. Four balls passed through his clothes; 
two horses were shot under him, Braddock was mortally 
wounded and borne from the field. At last, when two 
thirds of the troops were killed or wounded, the regulars 
turned and fled. Washington covered their flight and 
saved the wreck of the army from pursuit. 

Second Expedition (1758). — General Forbes led the sec- 
ond expedition, Washington commanding the Virginia 
troops. The general lost so much time in building roads 
that in November he was fifty miles from the fort. A 
council of war decided to give up the attempt; but 
Washington, receiving news of the weakness of the 
French garrison, urged a forward movement. He him- 



1758] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 95 

self led the advance guard, and by his vigilance dispelled 
all danger of Indian surprise. The French fired the fort 
and fled at his approach/ As the flag of Great Britain 
floated out over the ruined ramparts, this gateway of the 
West was named Pittsburg, in honor of William Pitt, 
prime minister of England, whose true friendship for the 
colonies was warmly appreciated in America. 

2. Acadia and Louisburg. — 1. Acadia. — We have seen 
(p. 88) that Acadia was ceded to Great Britain after Queen 
Anne's War. But the British gained possession of only 
the peninsula now called Nova Scotia ; the part of Acadia 
now called New Brunswick was still held by the French, 
who thus attempted to cut down the extent of the new 
British province. Scarcely had the French and Indian 
War begun when an attack was made on the French 
part of Acadia. The forts at the head of the Bay of 
Fundy were quickly taken, and the entire region east of 
the Penobscot fell into the hands of the British.^ 

2. Louisburg, — General Loudoun (low'don) collected an 
array at Halifax for an attack on Louisburg (1757). After 
spending all summer in drilling his troops, he gave up 
the attempt on learning that during his delay a powerful 

1 Some of them went southward and helped to stir up the Cherokees to attack the 
Southern colonies. The Cherokee war lasted, with all the atrocities of Indian warfare, 
till a strong expedition had destroyed many of the Cherokee villages (1761). 

^ This victory was followed by an act of heartless cruelty. The French Acadians 
of Nova Scotia were driven on board ships at the point of the bayonet, and were dis- 
tributed among the English colonies. Care was taken, however, not to break up 
families. The exiles suflTered many hardships, and often met insult and abuse. Long- 
fellow pathetically tells the story of the Acadians in his Evangeline. The Acadi- 
ans' houses and barns were burned, and after a time their fanns were given to British 
settlers invited there by the government. But though the British government was 
thus cruel, it acted only after great provocation. The Acadians were a simple-minded 
rural people, and if left to themselves might have become loyal British subjects after 
the treaty of Utrecht made their country a British possession. But French agents 
urged them to acts of hostility against their new rulers, and they stubbornly refused 
to take the oath of allegiance to their new king. The government felt that it was 
unsafe to risk any longer the danger of an Acadian rebellion. 



96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1758 

French fleet had arrived for the defense of Louisburg. 
The next year Generals Amherst (am'erst) and Wolfe cap- 
tured the fortress after a severe bombardment (1758), and 
took possession of the entire island of Cape Breton.* 

3. Crown Point and Ticonderoga. — 1. Battle of Lake 
George (1755). — About the time of Braddock's expedition, 
another was made against Crown Point. After many 
delays the French under Dieskau (des'kow) were met 
near the head of Lake George. General William Johnson 
was slightly wounded, and retired to his tent, whereupon 
General Lyman, with his provincial troops, regained the 
battle then nearly lost. This victory, following closely on 
the heels of Braddock's disaster, excited great joy. John- 
son was given a baronetcy and $25,000; Lyman, the real 
victor, received nothing. This battle ended the attempt 
to take Crown Point. Johnson built Fort William Henry 
near the battlefield, and when winter set in, dismissing 
the New England militia, went to his stone mansion on 
the Mohawk. Two years later, Montcalm', the new 
French general, sweeping down from Canada, captured^ 
and destroyed Fort William Henry, although General 
Webb was at Fort Edward, fourteen miles below, with 
6000 men lying idle in camp. 

2. Attack on Ticonderoga (1758). — On a calm Sunday 
morning, about four months before the fall of Fort 
Duquesne, a thousand boats full of British soldiers, with 
waving flags and strains of martial music, swept down Lake 

' Abandon inio: and destroying Louislmi g, tlui English made Halifax, as it is to-day, 
their chief stronghold in that region. 

'-' This victory is noted for an illustrntion of savage treachery. The British garrison 
had been guaranteed a safe escort to Fort Kdward. But they had scarcely left the fort 
when the Indians fell upon them to iilunder and to slaughter. In vain did the French 
oflBccrs peril their lives to save their captives from the lawless tomahawk. " Kill me," 
cried Montcalm, in desperation, " but spare the English who are under my protec-- 
tion." The Indian fury, however, was implacable, and the march of the prisoners to 
Fort Edward became a flight for life. 



1759] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 97 

George to attack Ticonderoga. General Ab'ercrombie, far 
away in the rear, ordered an assault before his artillery 
came up. A disastrous repulse was the result.' 

3. Capture of hoth Forts (1759). — The next year, at the 
approach of General Amherst with a large army, the 
French evacuated both Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

4. Niagara. — 1. About the time of Braddock's expedition, 
General Shirley marched to capture Fort Niagara. But 
reaching Oswego and learning of Braddock's disastrous 
defeat, he was discouraged. He simply built a fort and 
came home. The next year that indefatigable French 
general, Montcalm, crossed the lake from Canada and 
captured this fort with its garrison and a large amount of 
public stores. 

2. Nothing further was done toward the capture of Fort 
Niagara till the year 1759, when it was invested by an 
army under General Prideaux (prid'o), and was at last 
compelled to surrender. 

5. Quebec (1759). — The same summer in which Forts 
Niagara, Crown Point, and Ticonderoga were occupied by 
the British, General Wolfe anchored with a largo fleet and 
8000 soldiers in front of Quebec. Opposed to him was the 
vigilant French general, Montcalm, with a command equal 
to his own. The British cannon easily destroyed the lower 
city next the river, but the citadel, being on higher ground, 
was far out of their reach. The bank of the river, for 
miles a high craggy wall, bristled with cannon at every 
landing place. For months Wolfe lingered before the city, 
vainly seeking some feasible point of attack. Carefully 

1 While the army was delaying after this failure, Colonel Bradstreet obtained per- 
mission to lead part of it against Fort Frontenac, on the present site of Kingston. 
Ascending the Mohawk and crossing Lake Ontario, he captured the fort and a large 
quantity of stores intended for Fort Duquesne. The loss disheartened the garrison of 
the latter place, frightened off their Indian allies, and did much to cause its evacuar 
tion on the approach of the English (pp. 94, 95). 



98 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1759 



reconnoitering the precipitous bluff above the city, his 
sharp eyes at length discovered a narrow path winding 
among the rocks to the top, and he determined to lead his 
army up this ascent. To distract the enemy's attention, 
he took his men several miles up the river. Thence drop- 
ping down silently^ by night with the ebb tide, they landed, 
clambered up the steep cliff, quickly dispersed the guard, 
and, at daybreak, stood arrayed in order of battle on the 

Plains of Abraham. 
Montcalm, aston- 
ished at the audac- 
ity of the attempt, 
could scarcely be- 
lieve it possible. 
When convinced of 
its truth, he at once 
made an impetuous 
attack. Wolfe's vet- 
erans held their fire 
until the French 
were close at hand, 
then poured upon 
them rapid, steady 
volleys. The enemy 
soon wavered. Gen- 
eral Wolfe, placing 
himself at the head. 




CLIMBING THE BLUFF ABOVE QUEBEC. 



I General Wolfe was a great admirer of the poet Gray. On the beautiful starllgUt 
evening of the attack, he remarked to those in the boat witli him, " I would rather bo 
the author of the Elegy in a Country Churchyard than to have the glory of beating 
the French to-morrow ! " and amid the rippling of the water and the dashing of the 
oars, he repeated : 

" The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
Awaits alike the inevitable hour; 
The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 



1759] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 99 

now ordered a bayonet charge. Already twice wounded, he 
still pushed forward. A third ball struck hiniw He was 
carried to the rear. " They run ! They run ! " exclaimed 
the officer on whom he leaned. " Who run ? " he faintly 
gasped. "The French," was the reply. "Now God be 
praised ; I die happy ! " murmured the expiring hero. 
Montcalm, too, was fatally wounded as he was vainly try- 
ing to rally the fugitives. On hearing that he could not 
live more than twelve hours, he said, " So much the 
better. ^ I shall not see the surrender of Quebec ! " 

Five days afterwards (September 18, 1759), the city and 
garrison capitulated. 

Close of the War in Canada. — The five places which were 
especially sought by the British were now all captured. 
Canada itself, worn out, impoverished, and almost in 
famine because of the long war, was ready for peace. 
Early in 1760, however, an attempt was made to recapture 
Quebec. But a powerful fleet arrived from England in time 
to raise the siege. A large army under General Amherst 
marched upon Montreal, and Canada soon submitted. 
The British flag now waved over the continent, from the 
Arctic Ocean to the Mississippi. 

Spain having joined France in the war against Great 
Britain, preparations were made to attack her important 
colonies. An army of British soldiers and American col- 
onists took Havana (1762), the capital of Cuba, after a 
terrible and costly siege of two months. Another British 
army captured Manila, the capital of the Philippines. 

Pe?ice was made at Paris in 1763. Spain ceded Florida 
to Great Britain in exchange for Havana, which, like 
Manila, was restored to the Spanish. France gave up to 
Great Britain all her territory east of the Mississippi, ex- 
cept New Orleans and two small islands south of New- 



B. HIST, U. S.— 7 



100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1764 

fouudland; while to Spain she ceded New Orleans and all 
her territory west of the Mississippi. 

Great Britain's American territory was thus greatly in- 
creased. In the north she now marked out new boundaries 
for the province of Quebec. In the south she divided 
Florida into the two provinces of East and West Florida. 
Then, in order to confine the colonies along the seaboard 
strictly to the region east of the mountains, she proclaimed 
the vast interior of virgin forests and fertile prairie to be 
Indian country into which colonists might not intrude 
with settlements. 

Pontiac's War. — The French traders and missionaries 
had won the hearts of the Indians. When the more 
haughty British came to take possession of the western 
forts, great discontent was aroused. Pon'tiac, a chief of 
the Ottawas, formed a confederation of the tribes against 
the common foe. It was secretly agreed to fall upon all 
the British posts at once. Eight forts were thus surprised 
and captured.' Thousands of persons fled from their 
homes to avoid the scalping knife. At last, the Indians, 
disagreeing among themselves, deserted the alliance, and 
a treaty was signed. Pontiac, still revengeful, fled to the 
hunting grounds of the Illinois. He was killed (17G9), 
at Cahokia, by an Indian, for the bribe of a barrel of liquor. 

1 Various stratagems were employed to accomplish their deniffiis. At Fort Miami, 
on the Maumee, a squaw lured forth the commander by imploring aid for au Indian 
woman dying outside the tort. Once without, he was at the merey of the ambushed 
savages. At Mackinaw, hundi-eds of Indians had gathered. Commencing a game at 
ball, one party drove tlu; other, as if by accident, toward the fort. The soldiers were 
attracted to watch the game. At length the ball was thrown over the pickets, and 
the Indians, jumping after it, began the terrible butchery. The commander. Major 
Henry, writing in his room, heard the war cry and the shrieks of the victims, and, 
rushing to his window, beheld the savage work of the tomahawk and the scalping 
knife. Amid untold perils, he him.self escaped. At Detroit, the plot was betrayed (by a 
squaw, according to some accoucts), and when the chiefs were admitted to their pro- 
posed council for " brightening the chain of friendshiit," they found themselves sur- 
rounded bj' an armed garrison. Pontiac and his warriors, however, were allowed to 
depart. Two days after, he began a siege which lasted several months. 



102 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Effects of the French and Indian War. — Duriug this war. 
the colonists spent $16,000,000, and Great Britain repaid 
only $5,000,000. The Americans lost 30,000 men, and suf- 
fered the untold horrors of Indian barbarity. The taxes 
sometimes equaled two thirds the income of the taxpayer, 
but were paid without resistance, because levied by the 
colonists themselves. Men of different colonies and 
diverse ideas fought shoulder to shoulder, and many sec- 
tional jealousies were allayed. They learned to think and 
act independently of the mother country, and thus came 
to know their strength. Democratic ideas had taken root. 
Legislative bodies had been called, troops raised, and sup- 
plies voted, not by Great Britain, but by themselves. 
They had become fond of liberty. They knew their rights 
and dared maintain them. When they voted money, they 
kept the purse in their own hands. 

The treatment of the British officers also helped to unite 
the colonists. They made sport of the awkward provin- 
cial soldiers. The best American officers were often thrust 
aside to make place for young British subalterns. But, in 
spite of sneers, Washington, Gates, Montgomery, Stark, 
Arnold, Morgan, Putnam, all received their training, and 
learTied how, when the time came, to fight even British 
regulars. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Opening of French and Indian War.— Parkman's Wolfe and Montcalm, vol. j 
pp. 128-136. 142-147, 151-161. 

Expulsion of Acadians.— Parkman'8 Wolfe and Montcalm, vol. i. pi). 266-284. 
Fall of Quebec.-l'arkEuaii's Wolfe and Montcalm, vol. ii. pp. 280-297. 

XV. COLONIAL SOCIETY 

Population. — There were now thirteen British colonies 
in North America, besides Quebec, Nova Scotia, and the 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 103 

Floridas. They contained nearly 2,000,000 people. The 
largest city was Philadelphia, with about 25,000 inhab- 
itants. In every Xiolony most of the people were Protes- 
tants, but the intolerant religious spirit of early days 
had moderated. 

In all the colonies there were many white indented serv- 
ants — persons who were bound to service for some fixed 
period of time, during which they were little better than 
slaves. There were also negro slaves in every colony, 
those in the North being chiefly house servants. 

Government. — In each of the colonies the taxes were 
levied and the laws were made ' by a colonial assembly, 
members of which were elected by the people. The chief 
officer in each colony was the governor; and by the 
method in which the governor was chosen, the colonies 
may be divided into three classes: charter, royal, and 
proprietary. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the gov- 
ernors were elected by the people, as their charters pro- 
vided. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New 
Jersey, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia were royal 
colonies, for their governors were appointed by the king. 
The heirs of Penn appointed the governor of Pennsyl- 
vania and Delaware, and the heir of Lord Baltimore 
appointed the governor of Maryland; these were pro- 
prietary colonies. 

Most of the offices were held by members of a few lead- 
ing families, and sometimes descended from father to son. 

The Southern colonies were divided into counties for 
local government. New England had instead the smaller 

1 In accordance with the customs of the age, the laws were severe. There were 
twelve to seventeen oflfenses punishable by death. The affairs of private life were reg- 
ulated bylaw in a manner that would not now be endured. At Hartford, for example, 
the ringing of the watchman's bell in the morning was the signal for every one to 
rise; and in Massachusetts a scold was sometimes gagged and placed near her door, 
while for other minor offenses the offender was con fined in the stocks or the pillory. 



104 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



division called the town, governed chiefly by the whole 
body of citizens assembled in " town meeting." ^ In the 
Middle colonies there were both counties and towns. 
These differences in the form of local government have 
persisted in large part to our own time. 

Travel. — The nsual mode of travel was on foot or horse- 
back, or by means of coasting sloops. The trip from New 

York to Philadelphia 
occupied throe days if 
the wind was fair. Un- 
til after the Revolu- 
tion, the mails were 
carried by post riders 
on horseback." Even 
a bridegroom, were he 
rich or poor, who 
sought a wife in a dis- 
tant inland town, rode 
there on horseback 
and brought his bride 
home on a pillion be- 
hind him. There were 
few wheeled vehicles 
until near the end of the colonial period, and even these 
few went out of use during the Revolution. 

The first stage began running between New York and 
Philadelphia in 1756, and required three days to make the 

• The town meeting was of inestimable value in cultivatiug democratie ideas. The 
young and old. rich and poor, here met on a perfect equality to decide local questions 
of govermnent. 

2 A mail was started in 1672 between New York and Boston, by way of Hartford, 
the round trip being made monthly. In time a post-offlce system was effected by the 
coinbiniition of the colonies, but the only pcxt otHces were in a few of the largest cities. 
Benjamin Fi'anklin was one of the early postmasters general. Accompanied by his 
daughter Sally, he made a grand tour of tiic country in his chaise, perfecting and 
maturing the plan. It took five months to make the rounds which could now be made 
In as many days. 




i.N Hui;?ei;a(, K. 



COLONIAL HOCIETY 105 

trip. WheD, ten years later, the time was reduced to 
two days, the conveyance, "a good wagon with seats on 
springs," was called a flying machine ! 

Manners and Customs. — The colonists had brought with 
them the ideas and tastes of the mother country, and 
these long survived in spite of the leveling tendencies and 
the free spirit of the New World. The catalogues of 
Harvard and Yale were long arranged according to the 
rank of the students' families. Distinctions of dress, to 
mark the higher and the lower ranks of society, as in 
Europe, were sedulously preserved throughout even demo- 
cratic New England. Calfskin shoes, up to the time of 
the Revolution, were the exclusive property of the gentry ; 
the servants wore coarse cowhide. Farmers, mechanics, 
laborers, and workingmen generally were clothed in red 
or green baize jackets, leather or striped ticking breeches, 
and a leather apron. The stiff, hard leather breeches 
were greased and blacked, and the heavy cowhide shoes, 
homemade, were set off by huge brass buckles. Hired 
women wore short gowns of green baize and petticoats 
of linsey-woolsey. 

The colonial gentleman, however, was gay in his morn- 
ing costume of silk or velvet dressing gown and cap, and 
his evening attire of blue, green, or purple flowered silk or 
handsomely embroidered velvet, enriched with gold or 
silver lace, buttons, and knee buckles. Wide lace ruffles 
fell over his hands ; his street cloak glittered with gold 
lace; and a gold-headed cane and a gold or silver snuff- 
box were indispensable signs of his social position. 

The Neiv England people were strict in morals. Gov- 
ernor Winthrop prohibited cards and gaming tables. A 
man was whipped for shooting fowl on Sunday. The 
names of drunkards were posted up in the alehouses, and 



lOG 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



the keepers were forbidden to sell them liquor. Conduct 
was shaped by a literal interpretation of the Scriptures. 
The ministers had, at first, almost entire control. A church 

reproof was the 
heaviest punish- 
ment, and knotty- 
points in theology 
caused the bitterest 
discussions.' 

Only the gentil- 
ity, including min- 
isters and their 
wives, graduates of 
colleges, and those 
who held oflSce, had 
Mr. or Mrs. pre- 
fixed to their names. 
Others, above the 
rank of servant, 
were called Good- 
man or Goodwife. 

New England 
farm and village life 
presented a strange 
contrast to that 
with which we are familiar. The first house of the settler 
was built of logs, the chinks daubed with clay, and the roof 
thatched with long grass. In the later and better class 

I In the early Plymouth days, every house was opened on Sunday morning at the 
tap of the drum. The men and the women, the former armed to the teeth, assembled 
in front of the captain's house. Three abreast, they marched to the meetinghouse, 
where every man set down his musket within easy reach. The elders and deacons 
took their seats in front of the preacher's desk. The old men, the young men, the 
young women, and the older ones each had their separate place. The boys were kept 
in order bj' a constable. The services began with a long prayer, wliich was followed 




IN A NEW ENGLAND Mil. 1 I1N..H0L j&K. 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 107 

of dwellings, the logs were hewn square so as to need 
no chinking ; or a frame was made of heavy oak timbers, 
well mortised and braced together, the sides were cov- 
ered with split oak clapboards, and the roof with split 
cedar shingles, fastened with large wrought-iron nails. 
The windows consisted of two small lead frames, set with 
a few tiny diamond-shaped panes of glass (or sometimes 
oiled paper),^ and hinged so as to open outward against 
the house. The doors were of oak plank, and were 
securely fastened at night by heavy wooden crossbars. 

In the center of the house, or externally in the poorer 
dwellings, rose a stone or brick chimDey, about twelve 
feet square at the base," affording a fireplace large enough 
for seats to be placed at the side, where the children could 
sit in the winter evening and look up at the stars. To 
" lay the fire " was no small matter : for the back, a huge 
" back log," perhaps four feet long, was rolled in ; then 
on the andirons was placed a " front log"; between these 
were piled enormous quantities of smaller wood.^ 

The kitchen and the " best room " were the chief apart- 
ments. In the kitchen the center of attraction was the 

by reading and expounding of the Scriptures, a psalm,— lined by one of the ruling 
elders,— and the sermon. Instrumental music was absolutely proscribed. The ser- 
mon was often three or four hours long, and at the end of each hour the sexton 
turned the hourglass which stood upon the desk. Woe to the yoimgster whose eyelids 
drooped in slumber! The constable, with his wand tipped on one extremity with the 
foot and on the other with the tail of a hare, brought the heavier end down on the 
nodding head. The careworn matron who was betrayed into a like offense was re- 
minded of her duty by a touch on the forehead with the softer end of the' wand. 

1 As the building stood exactly facing the south, the sun "shone square in" at 
noon, and gave warning of the dinner hour. 

'•^ In the better houses a brick oven was built beside the chimney. This was heated 
by a fire of fine " kindlings," then swept clean, and the bread or beans set in to bake. 
The bricks retained the high temperature for a long time, and the famous " rye and 
Indian" bread was left in the oven all night. 

' Frictitm matches had not been invented, and the fire was carefully kept over 
night in the ashes. If it unfortunately " went imt," it was relighted by sparks from 
the flint-and-steel, or by live coals brought from a neighbor's hearth. 



108 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



great fireplace, with its swinging crane and pothooks to 
hold the iron pots for cooking.^ The room was rarely 
seven feet high, and from the bare joists overhead hung 
bunches of herbs, seed corn, and long strings of drying 
apples. The furniture was plain : a tall wooden clock ; a 




A COLONIAL KITCIiEN. 

high-backed wooden settle; a dresser set out with the 
cherished pewter dishes brought over from England; a 
spinning wheel ; and, perhaps, a loom for weaving. 

1 Tho food was scrvfd Kcnerally ou wooden platters. It was plentiful and coarse. 
Fresh meat was rarely seen, except when yame was taken. The stajile diet con- 
sisted of salt pork or beef, salt flsh, vegetables, and " rye and Iudi::n" l)ri iid or " l)an- 
nocks" — tlat cakes of Indian meal or rye baked over the hot coals on the hearth. 
Tho fanner's breakfast often consisted mainly of "bean porridge" seasoned with 
savory lu-rbs. The minister, we are told, had white bread provided for him as a 
special favor. Ice in snrauier was unheard of, and tho careful housekeeper cooled her 
butter by hauglu;.' it in a pail down tho well. 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 109 

The "best room" was used only on state occasions. 
Ordinarily it was carefully closed and locked to keep out 
the flies and preserve its sacred precincts from unlawful 
intruders/ The andirons were of brass that shone like 
gold. On the mantelshelf stood the high brass candle- 
sticks and the accompanying tray and snuffers. There 
were no rugs or carpets, but the floor was sanded and 
marked off by the housewife in many a quaint design. 
Against the walls hung the family paintings, fondly 
cherished as mementos not only of the departed, but also 
of the life beyond the seas. Here, too, was the library 
containing a few well read books — for books were scarce 
and costly, and reading was a serious matter, taken up 
for improvement and not for pastime." Among those few 
books were sure to be found the family Bible, Bunyan's 
Pilgrim's Progress, Young's Nig Jit Thoughts, Watts's Im- 
provement of the Mind, Fox's Book of Martyrs, Addison's 
Spectator, and Milton's Paradise Lost. 

The Middle Colonies. — The manners of the New York 
people were essentially Dutch. Many customs inaugurated 
during Dutch rule still remain in vogue. To the Dutch 
we owe our Christmas visit of Santa Claus, the custom 
of calling on New Year's Day, colored eggs at Easter, 
doughnuts, and crullers. 

1 Not only the best room but also the front door and the front yard were considered 
too good for everyday use. The front yard was carefully fenced off from the portion of 
the premises to which ordinary people had access. The path through it to the front 
door was bordered by narrow beds of "posies," Including hoUyhocts, sunflowers, 
lilacs, piulis, sweet Williams, peonies, etc. ; but our great-grandmothers had no gera- 
niums or verbenas. 

-' As the tiny windows gave little light by day, so by night the homemade tallow can- 
dles, or the pine knot on the hearth, shed but a faiut or flickering illumination. In cold 
weather the fire was heaped high, —for wood was abundant, — but through numerous 
chinks and crevices the winter air poured in, so that, as an old writer reuiarks, " while 
one side of the inmate was toasting, the other was freezing." To make matters still 
worse, the smoke escaping into the room by no means favored study or any other em- 
ployment requiring the use of the eyes. 



110 



THE THIKTEi;.\ COLONIES 



The Dutch mansion was ])uilt usually of brick. Its 
gable end, receding in regular steps from the base of the 
roof to the summit, faced the street. The front door was 
decorated with a huge brass knocker, burnished daily. 




■sr> IN Ni.w \Msi i.i;i)AM. 



While the Oonneciticut mistress si)un, wove, and stored her 
household linens in crowded chests, the Dutch matron 
scrubbed and scoured her floor and woodwork. The happy 
burghers breakfasted at dawn, dined at eleven, and retired 
at sunset. On dark evenings, as a guide for belated wan- 
derers, lightt'd candles were placed in the front windows. 

In Pennsylva7iia tliere were more Germans and Scotch- 
Irisli tliaii in any other colony, and also many people of 
several other nati<)nalities. But the English Quakers 
were the most influential in forming the character of the 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 



111 



colony. Philadelphia was famous for its flagged sidewalks, 
— then a rare luxury in any city, — for the regularity of its 
streets, and the elegance of its brick and stone residences. 
The trees bordering the carriageways and the gardens 
and orchards about the houses made it just such a "fair 
greene country town " as Peiin wished it to be. 

The Southern Colonists differed widely from the Northern 
in habits and style of living. In place of thickly settled 
towns and villages, they had large plantations, and each 
family was surrounded by a numerous household of serv- 
ants. The negro quarters formed a hamlet apart, with 

its gardens and 
poultry yards. An 
estate in those days 
was a little empire. 
The planter had 
among his slaves 
men of every trade. 




and they made upon 

the plantation most of 

the articles needed for 

common use. There 

were large sheds for 

curing tobacco, and 

mills for grinding corn and wheat. The tobacco was 

up and consigned directly to England. 

The heads of these great Southern families lived 



(^ 



NEGRO QUAETEKS. 



put 
like 



112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

lords, keeping their packs of choice hunting dogs and 
their stables of blooded horses. 

Their spacious mansions were sometimes built of im- 
ported brick. Within, the grand staircases, the mantels, 
and the wainscot reaching from floor to ceiling, were of 
solid mahogany, elaborately carved and paneled. The 
sideboards shone with gold and silver plate, and the 
tables were loaded with the luxuries of the Old World. 
All labor was done by slaves. Even the superintend- 
ence of the plantation and slaves was often committed to 
overseers, while the master dispensed a generous hospi- 
tality and occupied himself with social and political life. 

Education. — The Eastern Colonies. — Next to their re- 
ligion the Puritans prized education. When Boston was 
but six years old, money was appropriated to the seminary 
at Cambridge, which afterwards grew to be Harvard Col- 
lege (1636). For a time each family gave a peck of corn 
or a shilling in cash for its support. Common schools had 
already been provided, and soon (1647) every town was 
ordered to have a free school, and, if it contained over 
100 families, a grammar school. In Connecticut, any 
town that did not keep a school for three months in the 
year was liable to a fine. In 1700 ten ministers brought 
together a number of books for the founding of Yale 
College. This was first established at Saybrook, but was 
soon removed to New Haven. 

The Middle Colonies had many schools scattered through 
the towns. In the English period some of the schools 
were kept by Dutch masters, who taught English as an 
accomplishment.' Delaware is said to have had the 

• As early as 1702 an act was passed for tbo " EiKourageiucnt of a Graratnar Free 
School in tbo City of New York." In 1795 George Clinton laid the. foundation of the 
comnion-school system of the State, and within three years nearly 60,000 children were 
receiving instruction. 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 



113 




OLD SWEDISH CHURCH, WILMINGTON, DEL. 



first girls' school in the colonies. The first school in Penn- 
sylvania was started the year Philadelphia was founded. 
The orrery in- 
vented by Dr. Eit- 
tenhonse (1768) is 
still preserved in 
the college at 
Princeton.^ No Eu- 
ropean institution 
had its equal. 

Churches were 
established by the 
various denomina- 
tions. The Swedes 
had a meetinghouse before the landing of Penn. Minis- 
ters' salaries were generally paid in produce — wheat, 
corn, beans, bacon, wood, etc. The Dutch domine of 
Albany on one occasion received 150 beaver skins. 

The Soutliern Colonies met with great difficulties in 
their efforts to establish schools. Virginia can boast of 
the second oldest college in the colonies, — William and 
Mary (1692), the only one aided by the English govern- 
ment, — yet her English governors bitterly opposed the 
progress of education. Governor Berkeley, of whose 
haughty spirit we have already heard, said, "I thank 
God there are no free schools nor printing presses here, 
and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years." '^ 

1 Princeton College was the fourtli to be founded iu the colonies (1746) ; later came 
the University of Pennsylvania (1749), Columbia, originally King's College (1754), 
Brown University (1764), Dartmouth (1760), and Rutgers (1770). 

2 The earliest newspaper in Virginia was published in 173G under government con- 
trol. The first printing press in the colonies was set up at Cambridge in 1639. Most of 
the books of that day were collections of sermons. The first permanent newspaper, 
the Boston Ncics Letter, was published in 1704. In 1750 there were only seven news- 
papers. The American Daily Advertiser, the first daily paper, was not issued till 1784. 



114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Free schools were established in Maryland in 1696, and a 
free school in Charleston in 1712. Private schools were 
early established by the colonists in every neighborhood. 
A farm of 100 acres was set apart by law for each 
clergyman, and also a portion of the "best and first 
gathered corn " and tobacco. Fines were imposed for ab- 
sence from church. In Georgia, masters were compelled 
to send their slaves to church, under a penalty of a fine. 



XVI. COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 

In colonial times nearly all kinds of industry were car- 
ried on in ways very different from those of to-day. 
There was very little machinery in the country, and many 
tools that are now common were unknown ; therefore it 
took much more labor to produce a bushel of wheat, or a 
pair of shoes, or a pound of nails. The people also lacked 
very many things necessary to our comfort and conven- 
ience to-day, either because such articles had not yet 
been invented, or because they cost too much. As life 
was thus simplyi, there were fewer distinct occupations 
than now; instead of the thousands of different employ- 
ments now found in our country, there were then perhaps 
a hundred. 

In general, the Southern colonies were engaged in agri- 
culture, and the Northern colonies in agriculture and 
commerce. Much lumber was produced in several 
colonies, many ships were built, and many New Eng- 
landers were fishermen. Some manufacturing was carried 
on, mostly in the homes of the people, and with very sim- 
ple, handmade machineiy. A little iron was produced 
in nearly every colony, but only in Virginia and Maryland 
were the mines of much importance. 



COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 



115 




COLONIAL PLOW. 



Agriculture. — In farming, the chief occupation of the 
countiy, the colonists had the advantage of a fertile soil ; 
l)ut no pains wei-e then taken to preserve it by the 
use of fertilizers and by the rotation of crops. Land 
was plentiful and cheap, and when one field was 
worn out it was abandoned for a new 
one. The farming 
implements were few 
and clumsy com- 
pared with those used by 
farmers to-day. Grain, the 
crop of the Middle colonies, 
was sown by hand, reaped 
with sickles, and thrashed with flails or trodden out by 
horses and cattle. Grass was cut with scythes, and the 
hay was gathered up with hand rakes. The Southern 
colonies produced much tobacco (then the most valuable 
export of the country), rice, and indigo. Various 
crops were raised in all the colonies for the food of the 
people; but many common vegetables, such as potatoes, 
tomatoes, and asparagus, were not used by the first set- 
tlers.^ As at present, the supply of beef and pork was not 
only sufficient for home consumption, but also formed an 
important export. But both then and for many years 
thereafter meat was preserved by salting. 

Many sheep were raised for their wool, but, like the 
cattle, they were not generally of such good breeds as those 
common in our day. Besides wool, practically the only 

1 Tlie potato was originally a native of tropical America; it was improved by culti- 
vation in Europe, and was brought over here in the eighteenth century by Scotch emi- 
grants who obtained it first from Ireland. Tomatoes, or, as they were called, "love 
apples," were thought to be poisonous, and were cultivated only in the flower garden 
for the beauty of the bright red fruit. Among other things not used in colonial times 
were rhubarb, sweet corn, cantaloupes, head lettuce, and all the newer and finer vaii- 
eties of pears, grapes, peaches, and the like. 



IIG THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

fibers produced were flax, hemp, and silk. The cotton 
raised was quite insignificant in quantity. The produc- 
tion of raw silk in Georgia and the Carolinas was for 
many years encouraged by English laws, and l)ecaine of 
considerable importance. Afterwards, much silk was pro- 
duced in Connecticut and some other Northern colonies. 

Manufactures. — Great forests supplied plenty of fuel^ and 
enough lumber v/as sawed for the needs of the colonies, 
besides some for export. Much wood was burned merely 
for the ashes, from which were made potash and pearlash 
— exports of much value. 

Among the chief colonial manufactures were flour, 
leather and leather goods, hats, brick, and coarse cloths 
and clothing made mostly in the household.' 

The colonists had also made a beginning in the manu- 
facture of salt, paper, glass, and ironware ; but the main 
supply of these and a great many other manufactured 
articles came from abroad, chiefly from England. 

Commerce. — Colonial trade was largely in the hands of 
Englishmen; but in the North, and especially in New 
England, were many colonists who followed the sea for a 
livelihood. Dried and salted fish was the chief export of 
New England. This was carried by New Englanders, in 
their own ships, to the colonies farther south and to the 
West Indies, where perhaps molasses would be bough tt 
for the return voyage. A few New England cap- 
tains engaged in the slave trade; they carried rum to 
Africa, exchanged it for slaves, carried the slaves to the 
West Indies (or to the Southern colonies), sold them at a 

1 In household manufacturing tho women played a very importaut part. Besides 
spinning and weaving the flax and wool, they dyed, knit, made .soap au<l candles, and 
did many other things that girls nowadays never learn to do. Mrs. Wasliini^tou, it is 
said, kept sixteen spinning wheels running. The soldiers of the Revolution were 
clad mainly in homespun. 



COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 117 

great profit, and completed the trip by carrying molasses 
from the West Indies to New England, where it was made 
into rum for use in the next voyage to Africa. Colonial 
ships also carried on a part of the trade with Europe. So 
many ships were built in the colonies, especially in New 
England, that part of them were sold abroad. 

The money used in the colonies consisted mostly of 
Spanish silver and gold coins ; but money was very scarce, 
and domestic trade was largely by barter. In early 
colonial days tobacco served as money in Virginia, wam- 
pum in several colonies, and at one time musket balls 
were made to pass in place of farthings, the law providing 
that not more than twelve should be given in one pay- 
ment. The chief reason for the scarcity of money was 
the fact that the imports from England were worth more 
than the exports to England, so that the balance had to 
be paid in cash. For this state of affairs the English laws 
governing trade with the colonies were largely to blame. 

Transportation of freight was by water so far as possi- 
ble. On the bays and streams, ships could go far into 
the interior. There were no railroads and very few roads 
and wagons. Goods were carried long distances by pack 
animals; and in Virginia and Maryland great tobacco 
casks were sometimes rolled several miles to the nearest 
wharf. 




ROLLING TOBACCO TO THE WHAKF. 
B. HIST. U 9 — 8 



118 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Virginia. 



1. Uliaracter of tlie Colonists. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

6. 

6. 

7. 



a. 11 18 srrvicefi. 

b. iJU advuDtuTCS. 



John Siiiitli. 

The Seconti Cliurter. 

The "Starviri'; Time." 

Tlie Third Cliartei-. 

Marriage of Pocahontas. 

First Colonial Assembly. 

Prosperity of tlie Colony. 

Slavery Introduced (101!)). 

Indian Trouliles. 

VirKiuia Becomes a Royal Province. 

Period of Oppression. 

Bacon s Rebellion. 



2. Massachusetts. 



1. Plymouth Colony. 



2. Mass. Bay Colony. 



1. Landing of I'iigrin'.j. 

2. ChurucUr of I'llgriius. 

3. SufferiiiBS "f I'ilgrima. 

4. The Iiidiuiii 

5. rrogresfl ot Colony. 

1. Settlement. 

2. Kell^pDUs Disturbances. 
J 3. Union of Colonies. 

■ 4. King riiilip's War. 
5. N. L. a Koyal Province. 
a. Salem Witchcraft. 



3. Maine and New Hampshi 
1. 



4. Connecticut. 



5. Rhode Island. 



G. New York. 



7. New Jersey, 



n 
n 



8, 9. 



Pennsylvania 
and Delaware. 



a. Swedes and Dutch. 

b. William Penn. 



10. Max-yland. 

11, 12. The Carolinas. 
13. Georgia. 



n 



\t 



It. Intercolonial 

War.s (1689-1763). 



15. Colonial Society. 
[ 16. Colonial Industries. 



re. 

Settlement. 

Pequot War. 

The Three Colonies. 

Royal Charter. 

Settlement. 

Chai-ters. 

Settlement. 

Four Uuti h Governors. 

The English Governors. 

Settlement. 

East and West Jersey. 

New Jersey United. 

Settlement. 

Pliiladelphia Founded. 

The Great Law. 

Penn's Treaty. 

Delaware. 

Penn's Heirs. 

Mason and Di.von's Line. 

Settlement. 

The Charter. 

Civil Wars. 

Settlement. 

The Grand ModeL 

Pirates. 

Indian Troubles. 

North and South Carolina Separated. 

King William's War 

(108:)-97). 
Queen Anne's War 

(170-2-13). 
King George's War 

(17!4-48). 



1. CauBP. 

b. Attaclis upon the Colonista. 
•. Attacks by tlie ColoniHtii. 
J. Peace. 



French and Indian War 
(1754-63). 



a. Caiiw. 

b. Woiliington's Journey. 

c. War (I|>en8. 

d. Franklin's I'lsn of Union. 

e. Five Objective Points. 
/. .Spain. 

II. Piaee. 

It. Pontiac's War. 

i. ElTccU. 



p^ 



EPOCH IIL-THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

Quarrels with the Mother Country. — For many years 
there had been a standing quarrel between the colonies 
and the British government concerning the Navigation 
Acts and other laws ^ restricting colonial trade and manu- 
facture. It was generally admitted that Parliament had 
power to make such laws, but they were considered op- 
pressive. As long as France, the bitter enemy of Great 
Britain, held the vast region north and west of the colo- 
nies, the British government did not think it wise to irri- 
tate the colonists too greatly. Therefore the Navigation 
Acts and other restrictive laws were not strictly enforced. 
The colonists became accustomed to evading them by trad- 
ing in foreign markets and by smuggling foreign goods 
into the colonies without paying the duty. 

Another standing quarrel was between the royal gov- 
ernors and the colonial assemblies. In theory, the Brit- 
ish sovereign was ruler of the colonies. The governors, 
as his agents, claimed supreme control in carrying out his 
orders. But the colonial assembly held the pursestrings 
and often refused to do the governor's bidding.^ 

1 These acts and laws restricted colonial trade in certain commodities to British 
jaarkets and British or colonial ships, taxed the trade in other commodities, and either 
prohibited or greatly hampered manufacturing in the colonies. 

- The goveiDors were paid by grants made from time to time by the assemblies from 
taxes which the assemblies levied on the colonists. Thus, when the assembly was not 
pleased with the actions of the governor, it could grant him no money or but little 
Instead of this the governors often demanded a regular salary, but in vain. 

119 



120 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1701 

Causes of the Revolution. — The French and Indian War, 
by driving the French from Americ^a, rendered it less 
necessary for Great Britain to heed the wishes of the colo- 
nists. Accordingly, the British officers now began to en- 
force the odious Navigation Acts (1761).^ Moreover, the 
British Parliament, urged on by King George III., made a 
series of attempts to tax the colonists." The colonists re- 
sisted these attempts, at first by peaceable means and 
finally by force of arms, declaring that " taxation without 
representation is tyranny." 

The Stamp Act (1765) ordered that stamps should be 
put on all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. 
The money paid for the stamps was a tax to support an 
arm}' for the defense of the colonies. But the colonists, 
who insisted that they could be rightfully taxed only by 
their own assemblies, were thoroughly aroused by this law.'' 
The houses of British officials were mobbed. Prominent 
Loyalists were hanged in effigy. Stamped paper was 
seized. The stamp agents were forced to resign. People 

1 To enforce the Navigation Acts and put a stop to snjugfilinfr, tlio British officers 
were granted writs of ussistaiice, as they were caUed, or warrants autlioi iziug thoni to 
search for smuggled goods. Under tliis pretext, a petty customhouse official could 
enter any man's house or store at his pleasure. Th<! (tolonists resisted such search as a 
violation of their rights. James Otis, who resigned the office of advocate-general to 
argue the cause of the people in Boston, exclaimed, "To my dying day I will oppose, 
with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instruments of slavery on 
the one hand and villainy on the other." "Then and there," said John Adams, "the 
trmnpet of the Revolution was sounded." 

ii The colonists did not object to being tixod by their own assemblies which they 
themselves had elected, but maintained that Parliament had no right to tax them, be- 
cause they were not represented in Parliament — that is, they did not help to elect any 
of its members. 

3 The assembly of Virginia was the first to make public opposition to this odious 
act. Patrick Ilenry, a brilliant yoinig lawyer, introduced n resolution denying the 
right of Parliament to tax America. lie lioldly asserted that the king had jilayed the 
tyrant; and, alluding to the fate of other tyrants, exclaimed, "Ca;sar had his Brutus, 
Charles I. had his Cromwoll, and George III.—" Hero ii.mslng till the cry of " Treason! 
Treason!" from several parts of the hcmse had ended, he deliberately added— "may 
profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." 



1765] 



CATJSES 



121 



agreed not to use any article of British manufacture.* 
Associations, called the " Sons of Liberty," were formed 
to resist the law. Delegates from nine of the colonies 
met at New York (the " Stamp Act Congress ") and framed 
a Declaration of Rights, and a petition to the king and 




A SPINNING BEE. 



Parliament. The 1st of November, appointed for the 
Stamp Act to go into effect, was observed as a day of 
mourning. Bells were tolled, flags were raised at halfmast, 

1 The newspapers of the day meution many wealthy people who conformed to this 
agreement. On one occasion forty or fifty young ladieo, who called themselves 
"Daughters of Liberty," brought their spinning wheels to the house of Rev. Mr. 
Morehead, in Boston, and during the day spun 232 skeins of yarn, which they pre- 
sented to their pastor. " Within eighteen months," wrote a gentleman at Newport, 
R. I., "487 yards of cloth aud 36 pairs of stockings have been spun and knit in the 
family of James Niion of this tovra." In Newport and Boston the ladies, at their 
tea drinkings, used, instead of imported tea, the dried leaves of the raspberry. 



122 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1766 

and business was suspended. Samuel and John Adams, 
Patrick Henry, and James Otis, by their stirring and pa- 
triotic speeches, aroused the people over the whole laud. 

Alarmed by these demonstrations, the British Parlia- 
ment reptialed the Stamp Act (1706), but still declared its 
right to tax the colonies. 

The Townshend Acts, soon after passed by Parliament, 
laid a tax upon tea, glass, paper, etc., and established a 
Board of Trade at Boston to act independently of the 
colonial assemblies. The money raised by the new 
tax was to pay the salaries of the colonial governors and 
other officers to be appointed by the crown. 

Mut'my Act. — Troops were sent from England to enforce 
the laws. The Mutiny Act ordered that the colonies 
should provide these soldiers with food and shelter. To 
be taxed illegally was bad enough, but to support armed 
oppressors was unendurable. The New York assembly, 
having refused to comply, was forbidden to pass any 
legislative acts. 

The colonists, meanwhile, made new agreements not to 
buy any British goods till the duties were repealed. The 
Massachusetts assembly sent a circular letter to the other 
colonies, urging a union for redress of grievances. The 
king's secretary for colonial affairs ordered the assembly 
to rescind its action; but it almost unanimously refused. 
By this time the assemblies of nearly all the colonies had 
declared that Parliament had no right to tax them without 
their consent. 

Boston Massacre. — Boston being considered the hotbed 
of the rebellion. General Gage was sent thither with two 
regiments of troops. The people refused them shelter, but 
the Sons of Liberty allowed a part to sleep in Faneuil 
(fantl) Hall, while the rest encamped on the Common. 



1770] CAUSES 123 

Cannon were planted, sentries posted, and citizens chal- 
lenged. Frequent quarrels took place between the people 
and the soldiers. One day (March 5, 1770) a crowd of 
men and boys insulted the city guard. A fight ensued, in 
which three citizens were killed and eight wounded. Bells 
were rung, the country people rushed in to help the city, 
and it was with difficulty that quiet was restored.^ 

Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773). — Parliament, 
alarmed by the opposition of the colonists, rescinded the 
taxes, except that on tea — which was left to maintain the 
principle. Tea was now furnished at so low a price that, 
with the tax included, it was cheaper in America than 
in England. But the patriots were fighting for a great 
principle, not against a paltry tax. At Charleston the tea 
was stored away instead of being placed on the market.^ 
The tea ships at New York and Philadelphia were sent 
home. The British authorities refused to let the tea ships 
at Boston return. Thereupon, at a public meeting held in 
Old South Meetinghouse, it was decided that the tea should 
never be brought ashore. Men disguised as Indians 
boarded the vessels and emptied the tea into the water. 

The Climax Reached. — The British government at once 
retaliated. The charter of Massachusetts was annulled, 
and General Gage was appointed military governor of the 
colony. The port of Boston was ordered closed^ until 
the tea should be paid for, thus stopping business and 
causing great distress. The Virginia assembly protested 

' The soldiers were tried for murder. John Adams and Josiah Qiiincy, who stood 
foremost iu opposition to British asgressiou, defended them. All were acquitted 
except two, who were found guilty of manslaughter. 

'■^ After the outbreak of the Revolution, this tea was sold by the government of 
South Carolina, and the proceeds were applied to the public service. 

3 Marblehead and Salem, refusing to profit by the ruin of their rival, offered the use 
of their wharfs to the Boston merchants. Aid and sympathy were received from all 
sides. Even distant Georgia donated 63 barrels of rice and $720 in money. 



124 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1774 

against this measure, and was dissolved by the governor. 
Party lines were drawn. Those resisting the king were 
termed Whigs, and those supporting him, Tories or Loy- 
alists.' Everywhere were repeated the thrilling words of 
Patrick Henry, "Give me liberty or give me death." 
Companies of militia termed " minutemeu " were formed. 
The idea of a continental union became popular. Gage, 
being alarmed, fortified Boston Neck, and seized powder 
wherever he could find it. Only a spark was needed to 
kindle the slumbering hatred into the flames of war. 

The First Continental Congress (September 5, 1774) was 
held in Philadelphia, and represented every colony except 
Georgia. As yet, few members had any idea of independ- 
ence. The Congress simply voted that obedience was 
not due to the recent acts of Parliament, and sustained 
Massachusetts in her resistance. It issued a protest 
against standing armies being kept in the colonies with- 
out the consent of the people, and agreed to hold no com= 
mercial intercourse with Great Britain.^ 

EVENTS OF 1775 

Battle of Lexington (April 10), — General Gage, learning 
that the people were gathering military stores at Concord, 
sent a force of 800 men to destroy them. The patriots of 
Boston, however, were on the alert, and hurried out mes- 
sengers to alarm the country;' When the redcoats, as the 

' About a third of tho American people were Tories, and both Whigs and Tories in- 
cluded persona of evcrj- class and character, from tho noblest to tho meanest. Dnrinf? 
and after the Rovolntion thousands of tlie Loyalists were dci>rived of their prope-ty 
and were obliged to flee from tlic country. 

- It also prepared addresses to the, king, to the poophi of (ireat Britain, and to the 
Canadians; and fixed tho date for the meeting of a second Congress the next year. 

:• Paul Revere caused two lights to be hung up in the steeple of Old North Church. 
They were seen in Charlestown; messengers set out, and he soon followed on his 
famous midnight ride. (Read Longfellow's poem.) 



1775] 



LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 



125 




LEXINGTON, CONCORD, AND BUNKER HILL. 



British soldiers were called, reached Lexington, they 
found a company of minutemen gathering on the village 
green. The British commander shouted, " Disperse, you 
rebels ; lay down your arms ! " They hesitated. A skirmish 
ensued, which cost 
the lives of eight 
Americans — the 
first martyrs of the 
Revolution. 

The British sol- 
diers pushed on to 
Concord and de- 
stroyed the stores. 
But, alarmed by the 
gathering militia, 
they hastily retreated. It was none too soon. The whole 
region flew to arms. From behind trees, fences, buildings, 
and rocks, in front, flank, and rear, so galling a fire was 
poured that, but for reenforcements from Boston, none of 
the British would have reached the city all 76- As it was, 
they lost nearly 300 men. 

Effects. — The news that American blood had been 
shed flew like wildfire. Patriots came pouring in from 
all sides. Putnam,' without changing his working clothes, 
mounted his horse and rode all the way to Boston, over 
100 miles. Soon, 20,000 men were building intrench- 
ments to shut up the British in the city. Provincial con- 

' Israel Putnam, familiarly known as " Old Put," was born in Palcm, Mass., 1718. 
Many stories are told of his great courage and presence of mind. When a youth he 
once crawled into a cave to shoot a wolf which had long detied attack. At Fort Ed 
ward, when all others fled, he alone fought back the fire from a gunpowder magazine, 
protected by only a thin partition. In 1758 a party of Indians took him prisoner, 
bound him to a stake, and made ready to torture him with lire. The flames -were 
already scorching his limbs, and death seemed certain, when a French officer burst 
through the crowd and saved his life. 



126 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 

gresses were formed in the various colonies. Committees 
of safety were appointed to call out the militia and pro- 
vide for any emergency. The power of the royal govern- 
ors was broken from Massachusetts to Georgia. 

Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17). — The patriot header, Gen- 
eral Ward, having learned that the British intended to for- 
tify Bunker Hill, sent Colonel Prescott to anticipate them. 




WATCHING THE BATTLE OF BUNKEK HILL. 



Prescott and his men, liowever, set to work on Breeds 
Hill instead. It was bright moonlight, and they were so 
near Boston that the sentinel's "All's well ! " was distinctly 
heard. At daylight, the British officers were startled to 
see the redoubt which had been constructed. Resolved to 



1775] BUNKER HILL 127 

drive the Americans from their position, General Howe 
crossed the river with 3000 men. The roofs of Boston 
were crowded with spectators, intently watching the 
troops as they slowly ascended the hill. When the red- 
coats were within ten rods, a blaze of light shot from 
the earthworks, and whole platoons of the British fell. 
The survivors, unable to endure the terrible slaughter, 
broke and fled. They were rallied under cover of the 
smoke of Charlestown, which Gage had set on fire. 
Again they were met by that deadly discharge, and 
again they fled. Been force ments being received, the third 
time they advanced. Only one volley smote them, and 
then the firing ceased. The American ammunition was 
exhausted. The British charged over the ramparts with 
fixed bayonets. The patriots gallantly resisted with 
clubbed muskets, but were soon driven from the field."^ 

The Effect of this first regular battle was that of a vic- 
tory for the Americans. Their untrained farmer soldiers, 
while ammunition lasted, had repulsed the British veter- 
ans. The determination to resist tyranny was intensified. 

Capture of Ticonderoga (May 10). — Ethan Allen" and 

1 As General Warren was trying to rally the troops a British officer shot him. 
Warren had just received his appointment as major general, hut had crossed 
Charlestown Neck in the midst of flying balls, reached the redoubt, and offered him- 
self as a volunteer. Gage said that his fall was worth that of 500 ordinary rebels. 

2 Ethan Allen was a native of Connecticut. Ho emigrated to Vermont, which waa 
then part of the colony of New York, though this claim was violently disputed by 
New Hampshire. The governor of New Hampshire issued so many grants of land 
there that the region became known as the Netv Hampshire Grants. New York tried 
to eject those who held land under these grants. Ethan Allen became conspicuous in 
the resistance that ensued. The " Green Mountain Boys " made him their colonel, and 
he kept a watchful eye on the oflQcers from New York who sought by form of law to 
dispossess the settlers of farms which had been bought and made valuable by their 
own labor. The Revolutionary War caused a lull in these hostilities, and the Green 
Mountain Boys turned their arms upon the common enemy. Allen subsequently aided 
Montgomery in his Canadian expedition (pp. 128, 129), but, in a foolhardy attempt upon 
Montreal, was taken prisoner and sent to England. After a long captivity he was 
released, and returned home. Generous and frank, a vigorous writer, loyal to his coun- 
try and his friends, he exerted a powerful influence on the early history of Vermont 



128 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 

Benedict Arnold led a small company of volunteers to 
surprise the fortress of Ticonderoga. As Allen rushed in, 
a sentinel snap2)ed his gun at him and fled. Making his 
way to the commander's quarters, Allen, in a voice of 
thunder, ordered him to surrender. "By whose author- 
ity?" exclaimed the frightened officer. "In the name 
of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress ! " 
shouted Allen. No resistance was attempted. Large 
stores of cannon and ammunition, then much needed by 
the troops at Boston, fell into the hands of the Americans, 
without the loss of a man. Crown Point soon after was 
as easily taken. (Map, p. 132.) 

The Second Continental Congress (May 10) met at Pliila- 
delphia in the midst of these stirring events. It voted to 
raise 20,000 men, and appointed General Washington 
commander in chief. A petition to King George III. was 
pi-ej^ared, which he refused to receive. He declared that 
the colonists were rebels, and to subdue them he hired 
troops from the Count of Hesse Cassel * and other petty 
German rulers. These acts destroyed all iiope of recon- 
ciliation. 

Condition of the Army. — When Washington arrived be- 
fore Boston, and took command under the famous Cam- 
bridge Elm (July 3), the army numbered but 14,000 men. 
Few of them were drilled; some were already weary of 
the hardships of war; all were badly clothed and poorly 
armed ; and there were less than nine rounds of ammuni- 
tion to each soldier. Washington made every exertion to 
relieve their wants, and meanwhile kept Gage penned up 
in Boston. 

Expedition against Canada. — Late in the summer Gen- 
eral Montgomery, leading an army by way of Lake 

1 Hence these hired soldiers were called Hessians. 



1775] 



EXPEDITION AGAINST CANADA 



129 



Champlain, captured St. Johns and Montreal, and then 
appeared before Quebec. Here he was joined by Colonel 
Arnold with a crowd of half -famished men, who had 
ascended the Kennebec and then struggled through the 
wilderness. 

Attack upon Quebec. — Their united force was less than 
1000 effective men. Having besieged the city for three 




WASHINGTON TAKES COMMAND OF THE ARMY. 

Weeks, they decided to risk an assault. In the midst of a 
terrible snowstorm they led their forces in a gallant 
attack, but the attempt failed.^ The Americans blockaded 

1 As Montgotnery's men rushed forward, a rude blockhouse appeared through the 
blinding snow. Charging upon it, Montgomery fell at the first fire, and his followers, 
disheartened, fled. Arnold, meanwhile, approached the opposite side of the city. 
While bravely fighting, he was severely wounded in the leg and borne to the rear. 
Morgan, his successor, pressed on the attack, but, unable either to retreat or to ad- 
vance against the tremendous odds, was forced to surrender. 



130 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 

the city until spring, but at the approach of British reen- 
forcements they were glad to escape, leaving Canada in 
the hands of Grreat Britain. 

EVENTS OF 1776 

Evacuation of Boston (March 17). — Washington, in order 
to compel the British to fight or run, sent a force to fortify 
Dorchester Heights by night. In the morning the British 
were once more astonished to see intrenchments which 
overlooked the city, and which were steadily made stronger. 
General Howe, who was then in command, remembering 
the lesson of Bunker Hill, set sail for Halifax with his 
armj", fleet, and many Loyalists. The next day Washing- 
ton entered Boston amid great rejoicing.' 

Attack on Fort Moultrie (June 28). — Early in the sum- 
mer a British fleet appeared off Charleston and opened 
fire on Fort Moultrie (moo'tri).- So fearful was the response 
from Moultrie's guns that the ships were disabled and 
forced to sail away. General Clinton, with some Bi-itish 
troops, tried to attack the fort in rear, but the fire of 
the American riflemen was too severe. This victory de- 
lighted the colonists, as it was their first encounter with 
the ships of the boasted " Mistress of the Seas." 

• ' For olcvon months the inhabitants had endunxl tho horrors of a aicpo and the 
insoh'nc'C of the enemy. Their houses had been pillaged, their shops rilled, and their 
churches profaned. Even the boys iu their sports had soriietiroes been wantonly 
annoyed by the British soldiers. A famous story is told of how the boys complained 
in vain to the British officers about their trampled snow hills and the spoiled ice of 
their skatinj^ pond, and at last took their story to General (Jage himself, who was so 
struck with their sturdy appeal that lie gave orders to stop the trouble. 

-Tlio fort of palmetto logs was so called, alter this action, in honor of Colonel 
Moultrie, its gallant defender. Early in the action the flagstafT was cut off by a ball. 
Sergeant .Jasper leaped over the breastwork, caught up the flair, tied it to a sponge- 
staff (an instrument for cleaning cannon), and hoisted it to its place. The next day 
Governor Rutledge offered him a lieutenant's commission. He refused it, saying, 
" I am not lit for the company of officers ; I am only a sergeaot." 



i776] 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



131 



Declaration of Independence (July 4). — Ricliard Henry 
Lee. of Virginia, introduced in the Congress a resolution 
that " these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, 
free and independent States." This was passed (July 2) 
after each of the colonies had declared in favor of the 
separation from Great Britain. The report of the com- 




INDEPENDENCE HALL, WHERE THE DECLARATION WAS ADOPTED. 

mittee^ appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independ- 
ence was adopted on July 4.^ The war up to this time 

1 Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert 
R. Livingston composed this committee; but the Declaration was almost wholly from 
the pen of Jefferson. (Read the Declaration, in the appendix of this book.) 

- The building in which Congress met, and in which the Declaration was adopted, 
was the Pennsylvania Statehouse, now called Independence Hall. In its steeple was 
a bell on which, by a happy coincidence, was inscribed : "Proclaim liberty throughout 
all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." This famous " Liberty Bell" played an 
important part in the celebration held after the first public reading of the Declaration 
(July 8). 




LoD|;i(U(l 



132 



1776] CAMPAIGN NEAR NEW YORK • 133 

had been fought merely to secure a redress of grievances; 
l)ut from now on it was a war for the life of a new and in- 
dependent country/ 

Campaign near New York. — Greneral Howe, after evacu- 
ating Boston, went to Halifax, but soon set sail for New 
York. Thither also came Admiral Howe, his brother, 
with reenforcements from England, and Greneral Clinton 
from his defeat at Fort Moultrie. Washington, divining 
Howe's plans, now gathered his forces at New York to 
protect that city. His force was but one third as large as 
the British army. 

Battle of Long Island (August 27). — The British army 
landed on the southwest shore of Long Island. General 
Putnam held a fort at Brooklyn and defenses on a range 
of hills south of the city. The English attacked the de- 
fenses in front and rear, with superior numbers. About 
one fourth of the Americans engaged were lost.^ 

Had Howe attacked the fort at Brooklyn immediately, 
the Americans might have been destroyed. Fortunately, 
he delayed for the fleet to arrive. On the second night 
after the battle, in a dense fog, the Americans moved 
silently down to the shore and crossed the river to New 
York. In the morning, when the sun scattered the fog, 
Howe was chagrined to find that his prey had escaped. 



1 The desire for independence, entertained at first by only a very few, spread 
steadily after the outbreak of hostilities. Many were persuaded by Thomas Paine's 
pamphlet Gomnion Sense, which appeared iu January, 1776, and of which more than 
100,000 copies were printed. This set forth in a striking manner the reasons for regard- 
ing reconciliation as hopeless, and for declaring independence without delay. 

2 Many of the captives were consigned to the prison ships kept near Brooklyn. 
Their hard lot made the fate of those who perished in battle to be envied. During the 
war, over 11,000 American prisoners died in these loathsome hulks. Their bodies were 
buried in the beach, whence, for years after, they were washed out from the sand by 
every tide. In 1808 the remains of these martyrs were interred near the navy yard, 
Brooklyn ; and in 1873 they were finally placed in a vault at Washington Park in the 
same city. 



134 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1776 

Washington'' s Retreat. — The British, crossing to New 
York/ moved to attack Washington, who had taken post 
on Harlem Heights. Finding the American position too 
strong, Howe moved up the East River in order to gain 
the rear. Washington left a strong garrison in Fort 
Washington on the Hudson, and withdrew the rest of his 
army to White Plains. Here Howe came up and gained 
a small victory. Washington having retired farther north, 
Howe sent the Hessians to take Fort Washington, which 
they captured after a fierce resistance (November 16). 

Flight through New Jersey. — Washington had now re- 
tired into New Jersey in order to protect Philadelphia. 
Cornwallis, with 6000 men, hurried after him, and for 
three weeks pursued the flying Americans.^ At last, 
Washington reached the Delaware, secured all the boats, 
and crossed into Pennsylvania.^ Howe had to wait for 
the river to freeze over, meanwhile quartering his troops 
in the neighboring villages. 

Robert Morris.^ — The disastrous retreat into Pennsyl- 
vania was regarded by the British, and by many Ameri- 
cans, as the definite overthrow of the Revolution. Many 

' Captain Nathan Hak? bad been sent by Washington as a spy into the British 
camps on Long Island, Ho passed the lines safely, but on his way back was recog- 
nized and arrested. Being taken to Howe's headquarters, he was tried and executed. 
No clergyman was allowed to visit liim ; oven a Bible was denied him ; and his fare- 
well letters to his mother and sist(>r were destroyed. Hia last words were, " I regret 
that I have but one lite to lose for my country ! " 

'^ Many of the patriots had no shoes, and left their bloodstained footprints on the 
frozen ground. Oftentimes the van of the pursuing army was in sight of the Ameri- 
can rearguard. 

3 During this retreat Washington repeatedly sent orders to General Charles Lee, 
who was then at North Castle, to join him. Lee hesitated, and at last moved very 
slowly. One day, while quartered in a small tavern remote from his troops, he was 
taken prisoner by the English cavalry. His capture was considered a great disaster 
by many Americans, who thought he was the best officer in the army. 

* Robert Morris was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, though he had op- 
posed its adoption. He was one of the leading members of Congress, and worked hard 
as one of the committee of ways and means. In 1781 he became Snperinteudent of 
Finance. To supply the needs of hia country, he issued his personal notes to the amount 



1776] 



ROBERT MORRIS 



135 



declared in favor of the enemy. Washington had appar- 
ently lost his campaign ; his hungry, naked, and unpaid 
army was slipping away; 
and the empty-handed 
government was in flight. 
Washington appealed to 
Robert Morris, of Phila- 
delphia, to save his army 
and save the cause; and 
Morris nobly saved them. 
He raised money on his 
own private credit to pay 
the soldiers, to clothe, 
equip, and supply them, 
and thus to keep them 
together. 

The Battle of Trenton.— 
Washington was thus en- 
abled to strike a daring blow. On Christmas night, in a 
storm of sleet, amid drifting ice that threatened every 
moment to crush the boats, he crossed the Delaware with 
2400 picked men, fell upon the Hessians at Trenton, cap- 
tured 1000 prisoners, slew their leader,^ and safely escaped 




ROBERT MORKIS. 



of several million dollars, and paid them so promptly that they always stood at par; 
whereas the jrovernment notes depreciated to utter worthlessness. After Washington, 
we owe American independence perhaps most largely to the liuaucial skill and the sacri- 
fices of this remarkable man. Final victory would have been impossible without the 
funds which he supplied. The government, in its financial straits, was slow in repaying 
the money which he advanced. Like Washington, too, he had to bear the malicious 
attacks of personal enemies, to which his high public station exposed him. Some 
years after the war, his business affairs became involved through unfortunate invest- 
ments. He was reduced to poverty and was cast into a debtor's prison, where he 
languished four years. He died (1806) a few years after his release. 

1 Colonel Rahl attended some Christmas festivities which were kept up all night 
long. A messenger came, at early dawn, with a note warning him of the approach 
of the American forces. But the colonel thrust it unopened into his pocket. Soon 
after daylight the roll of drums was heard, and the Americans were in pursuit of the 
surprised Hessians. 

B. HIST. u. s. — 9 



136 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



[1777 

two killed 



back to camp, with the loss of only four men 
aud two frozen to death. 

Effects. — The fires of patriotism were kindled afresh by 
this brilliant feat. New recruits were received, and the 
troops, whose term of enlistment was expiring, were per- 
suaded to remain a few weeks more. Howe ordered Corn- 
wallis, who was just setting sail for England, to return 
and prepare for a winter's campaign. 



EVENTS OF 1777 

Battle of Princeton (January 3). — Washington soon 
crossed the Delaware again, and took post at Trenton. 
Just before sunset Cornwallis came up. His first onset 

being repulsed, he de- 
cided to wait till morn- 
ing to " catch the fox." 
Washington's situation 
was now most critical. 
Before him was a pow- 
erful army; behind him 
a river full of floating 
ice. That night, leav- 
ing his camp fii'os burn- 
ing to deceive the enemy, he crept around the British, 
fell upon some troops near Princeton, routed them, took 
over 200 prisoners, and by rapid marches reached in 
safety the hilly region about Morristown. Cornwallis 
heard the firing and hurried to the rescue, but he was 
too late. The victory was won, and the victors were 
beyond pursuit. 

Nearly all of New Jersey was soon regained by the 
patriot forces. The victories of Trenton and Princeton 




WASUINIJTO.N'S IIEADQUAKTKKSS AT MOKUISTUWN. 



1777] CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA 137 

woii for Washington universal praise, and he was declared 
to be the savior of his country. 

Campaign in Pennsylvania. — Howe, having spent the 
next summer at New York, where he was closely watched 
by Washington, finally took the field, and maneuvered to 
force the patriot army to a general fight. Finding the 
"American Fabius" too wary for him, he suddenly 
embarked the larger i^art of his force and set sail. 
Washington hurried south with his small army to protect 
Philadelphia. 

Battle of Brandy wine (September 11). — Howe's army hav- 
ing landed at the head of Chesapeake Bay, the Americans 
took position at Chads Ford, on the Brandywine. Here 
they were attacked in front, while Cornwallis stole around 
to the rear. Sullivan, Stirling, Lafayette,^ Wayne, and 
Count Pulaski in vain performed prodigies of valor. The 
patriots were defeated. After further maneuvering, Phil- 
adelphia was taken, and the British army went into quar- 
ters there and at Germantown. 

Battle of Germantown (October 4). — Washington would 
not let the enemies of his country rest in peace. Making a 
night march, at sunrise he fell upon their troops at Ger- 
mantown. At first the attack was successful, but a few 
British desperately defending a stone house caused delay. 
The cooperation of the different divisions was preveated 

1 Marquis de Lafayette, at a banquet in honor of the brother of the British king in 
1775, heard of the uprising in New England. He was won by the American arguments, 
and from that time joined his hopes and sympathies to the American cause. He was a 
nobleman of high rank, not yet twenty years of age; he had just married a woman 
whom he tenderly loved ; his prospects at home for honor and happiness were bright. 
Yet his zeal for America led him to sacrifice his ease and brilliant prospects at home. 
He purchased a vessel, fitted it out at his own expense, and, escaping the offlcers sent to 
detain him, crossed the ocean. Hastening to Philadelphia, he asked permission to servo 
as a volunteer without pay. A few days after, his acquaintance with Washington be- 
gan, and it soon ripened into a tender and intimate friendship. His valor won for 
him a commission as major general before he was twenty-one. 



138 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



[1777 



by a dense fog, which also hid the confusion of the enemy, 
so that the Americans retreated when victory was near.' 




CHEW HOUSE — THK STONE HOUSE DEFENDED BY THE BRITISH AT GEHMANTOWN. 

Campaign in the North.— The main plan of the British 
government for this year was to conquer New York and 
cut off New England from the other colonies. An ex- 
pedition from Canada up Lake Champlaiii was to join 
hands at Albany with an expedition from New York up 
the Hudson, and with another smaller one from Lake 
Ontario by way of the Mohawk valley. 

BuTf/oijne^s Invasion. — In June Burgoyne' marched south 
from Canada with an army of British, Germans, and 
Indians. Forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward, 
and the supplies at Whitehall, successively fell into his 
hands. General Schuyler's (skl'lerz) small force could 

I After these battles Howe tinned his attention to the torts on the Delaware, whieh 
prevented his briuging supplies up to Philadelphia. The gallant defenders were soon 
forced by a severe bombardment to evacuate the forts. Washington now retired to Val- 
ley Forge for winter quarters. 



1777] CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH 139 

only obstruct his path through the wilderness by felling 
trees across the roads and breaking down bridges. The 
loss of so many strongholds caused general alarm. Lin- 
coln, with the Massachusetts troops, Arnold, noted for his 
headlong valor, and Morgan, with his famous riflemen, 
were sent to help check Burgoyne's advance, and militia- 
men were gathered from the neighboring States.' 

Burgoyne's Difficulties. — 1. Burgoyne was disappointed 
to hear no news of the expedition from New York. Howe 
knew about the plan, but the final order to him was mis- 
laid in England, so that he never received it. Instead of 
moving up the Hudson, Howe made his expedition against 
Philadelphia, and was greatly delayed by Washington. 
Some British troops left in New York at last started up 
the Hudson, but they were too late. 

2. Colonel St. Leger, with the expedition that was to 
move down the Mohawk valley, got no farther than Fort 
Schuyler,"^ which he closely besieged. A small force of 
militia, under Herkimer, promptly advanced to its relief, 
but was ambuscaded by Tories and Indians at Oris'kany. 
There was fought one of the most desperate and mur- 
derous battles of the war (August 6).^ The Americans 
were victorious, but were too much crippled to pursue. 
Next, General Arnold was sent by General Schuyler to 
relieve the fort. Fearing that he could not reach it in 
time, he had recourse to stratagem. A half-witted Tory 
prisoner was promised his freedom if he would hurry on 

•The outrages of the Indians along Burgoyne's route — especially the killing and 
scalping of a heautiful young lady named Jane McCrea — led many to join the patriot 
army. Burgoyne tried to restrain the Indians, whereupon they deserted him and 
returned to their homes. 

2 This fort was originally named Fort Stanwix ; it stood on the site of Rome, N. Y. 

3 The same day, the garrison of Port Schuyler made a sortie and plundered St. 
Leger's camp. Keturning, the Americans hoisterl the captured British standards, and 
above them a crudely made American flag— the first flag with stars and stripes ever 
hoisted. This national emblem had been adopted by Congress only a few weeks before. 



14U THE KEVOLUTIONARY WAR [177«r 

and tell St. Leger's troops that a large body of Americans 
was close at hand. The Tory, having cut holes in his 
clothes, ran breathless into the camp of the besiegers, 
showing the bullet-holes and describing his narrow escape 
from the enemy. When asked their number, he mysteri- 
ously j)ointed upward to the leaves on the trees. The 
Indians and British were so frightened that they fled 
])recipitately, leaving their tents and artillery behind 
them ! 

H. Burgoyne sent a detachment under Colonel Baum to 
seize the supplies the Americans had collected at Ben- 
nington, Vt. There it was met by the militia under Gen- 
eral Stark.' His patriotism and bravery so inspired his 
raw troops that they defeated the Germau regulars and 
took over GOO prisoners (August 16). 

The Trco Battles ofSarator/a (September 19, October 7). — 
Disappointed in his expectation of supplies and reen- 
forcements from all these directions, Burgoyne moved 
southward and attacked the American army, now under 
General Gates," at Bemis Heights,"' near Sarato'ga. The 
strife did not cease until darkness closed over the battle- 
field. For two weeks afterwards both armies lay in cam}>, 
fortifying their positions, and each watching for an oppor- 

' A famous anecdotG is told of General Stark at this battle — that ho oxclaimed, 
"There are the redcoats; we niuat beat them to-dajs or Molly Stark is a widow." 
Althouf^h his wife's uainc was Elizabeth, " Molly " may have been her nickname. 

-' Schuyler's retreat (p. 138) had caused such loss of conlldcneo in him that, by order 
of Congr<'8s, ho was superseded by Gates— just as ho was ready to reap the result of 
his well laid schemes. With noble-minded patriotism ho worked on as zealously as 
ever till Gates arrived, and then generously offered to assist him. 

•■' The American fortilieations at Bemis Heifrhts were thrown up under the direc- 
tion of Kosciusko (kos si us'ko). This general was a Polo of noble birth. While in 
Franco ho formed the acquaintance of Franklin, who recommended him to Washington. 
Ho camo to America and offered himself " to fight as a volunteer for American inde- 
pendence." Washington was greatly pleased with him, and made him his aid. He 
became a colonel in the engineer corps, and superintended the coij.stmction of the 
works at West Point. After the war, he returned home and led the Poles in their 
struggles for independence. 



1777] CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH 141 

tunity to take the other at a disadvantage. Burgoyne's 
provisions were low, and in desperation he moved out to 
attack the Americans again. Arnold, who had been un- 
justly deprived of his command since the last battle, 
maddened by the sight of the conflict, rushed into the 
thickest of the. fight. Grates sent an officer to recall him, 
but he was already out of reach. He had no authority to 
fight, much less to direct ; but, dashing to the head of his 
old command, where he was received with cheers, he 
ordered a charge on the British line. Urging on the fight, 
leading every onset, delivering his orders in person where 
the bullets flew thickest, he forced the British' to their 
camp. Here the Hessians, dismayed by these terrific 
attacks, fired one volley and fled. Arnold, having forced 
an entrance, was wounded in the same leg as at Quebec 
(p. 129), and was borne from the field, but not until he 
had won a victory while Gates stayed idle in his tent. 

Effects of these Battles. — Burgoyne now fell back to 
Saratoga. Hemmed in on all sides, he saw no hope of 
escape. Provisions were nearly exhausted and water was 
scarce, as only the women dared go to the river for it. 
The American batteries commanded the British camp.- 

' General Fraser was tho mind and soul of the British anny. General Morgan soon 
saw that this brave man alone stood between the Americans and victory. Calling 
some of his best men, ho said, "That gallant officer is General Fraser, I admire and 
honor him ; but he must die. Stand among those bushes and do your duty." In Ave 
minutes Fraser fell, mortally wounded. 

- While a council of war, held in Burgoyne's tent, was considering the question of 
surrender, an eighteen-pound cannon ball passed over the table around which the 
officers sat. Under such circumstances the decision was quickly made. 

Burgoyne was not the only British general who came to grief this year. General 
Prescott, the British commander in Rhode Island, had become very negligent in the 
fancied security aflfordcd by the British ships and the superior British force around 
him. Dexterously avoiding the enemy's vessels, Colonel Barton and about forty 
militia rowed ten miles in whaleboats, landed near Prescott's quarters, seized the as- 
tonished sentinel who guarded his door, and hurried off the half-dressed general. 
An exchange of prisoners being proposed, General Howe parted with Charles Lee 
ip. 134) in exchange for Prescott. 



142 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



[1777 



After some negotiating, Burgoyne's entire army, nearly 
6000 strong, laid down their arms. General Burgoyno 
surrendered his sword to General Gates, who promptly 
returned it. 

A shout of joy went up all over the land at the news of 
this victory. From the despair caused by the defeats of 




.,>;s^4ii-' 



BUKGOYNK'S SURRKNDER. . 

Brandywine and Germantown, the nation now rose to the 
highest pitch of confidence. In a few mouths Great 
Britain sent commissioners with liberal proposals, which, 
before the war began, would have been accepted; but 
that day was past.' 

' Next, bribery was tried. Ainonj; tliose apiiroacbeil was General Tteed of Peiin- 
sylvauia. He was ottered 10,000 jriiiiicas and high honors if lie would exert his influ- 
ence to eff'ect a recoueiliation. " I am not worth purchasing," said the hont^st patriot, 
" but such as I am, the king of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me." 



1778] WINTER IN VALLEY FORGE 143 

EVENTS OF 1778 

Winter in Valley Forge (1777-78).— The winter passed 
by Washington's army in Valley Forge was the gloomiest 
period of the war. Besides borrowing what it could, the 
Congress had been obliged to issue much " Continental " 
paper money, and this was now so depreciated in value 
that an officer's pay would not keep him in clothes. 
Many, having spent their fortunes in the war, were com- 
pelled to resign in order to get a living. The men were 
encamped in cold, comfortless huts, with little food or 
clothing. Barefooted, they left on the frozen ground 
their tracks in blood. Few had blankets, and straw could 
not be obtained. Soldiers who were enfeebled by hunger 
and benumbed by cold slept on the bare earth. Sickness 
followed. With no change of clothing, no suitable food, 
and no medicines, death was the only relief. 

Amid this terrible suffering the fires of patriotism burned 
brightly. Washington felt that his cause was just, and 
inspired all around him with his sublime faith.^ The sol- 
diers were well drilled by Baron von Steuben, a veteran 
from the famous army of Frederick the Great of Prussia. 
The thorough discipline and European tactics which 
Steuben introduced among the ragged patriots made 
them thereafter more reliable and efficient in military 
operations. 

Aid from France. — In the spring came the good news 

1 Besides all the perils of want and famine which he shared with his soldiers, Wash- 
ington was called upon to sutler from envy and calmnny. General Conway, a cunning, 
restless intriguer, formed a cabal of officers against Washington. Their plan was to 
wound his feelings so that he would resigu. In that event, Gates, whose reputation 
was very high, would succeed to the command. Pennsylvaiiia sent to Congress a 
remonstrance censuring Washington. The same was done by members from Massa- 
chusetts. Fortunately, the army and the best citizens knew the inspiration of the 
movement to be jealousy, and the attack recoiled on the heads of its instigators. 



144 THK REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1778 

that, through the efforts of Fraukliu,' France had acknowl- 
edged the independence of the United States, and that a 
fleet was on its way to help them in their struggle. In 
this action France was influenced by her old hatred of 
England, and by the great victory which the Americans 
had won over Burgoyne. 

Battle of Monmouth (June 28). — The British government, 
alarmed by the sending of the French fleet, ordered Clin- 
ton, the successor of General Howe, to evacuate Phila- 
delphia and concentrate his forces at New York. Wash- 
ington rapidly followed the British across New Jersey, 
and overtook them at Monmouth. General Lee,'^ who 
conducted the attack, ordered a retreat. The men, en- 

1 Benlamin Franklin was bom in Boston, 1706; died in Pbila^lolphia, 1790. His 
fatlier was a soap and candle maker, with small means, and Benjamin, being the 
youngest boy among seventeen children, had little opportunity to gratify his desire 
for knowledge. By abstaining from meat he managed to buy a few books, which he 
diligently studied. At seventeen years of age he landed in Philadelphia with a silvei 
dollar and a shilling in copper. Ashe walked along the streets, eating the roll of bread 
whieli served for his breakfast, his future wife stood at her father's door and smiled at 
his awkward appearance. Utile dreaming of his brilliant future or of its interest to lier. 
He soon obtiiinod employment as a printer. After a time he established a newspaper, 
and in 1732 began t() publish Poor Richard's Almanac, which for twenty years was 
quit* as popular in Europe as in America. Its common-sense proverbs and useful hints 
are household words to this day. Retiring from V)usines8 with a line fortune, he devoted 
himself chiefly to science. Hisdi .coveries in electricity are world renowned. Frank- 
lin was an unflinching patriot and an able statesman. His Plan of Union (p. 93) antici- 
pated some of the features of our present government. While acting as agent for 
Pennsylvania in England (1757 and later) he defended the cause of liberty with groat 
zeal and aliility. Ho helped to draft the Declaration of Independence, and was one 
of its signers. Having been appointed ambassador to France, he first invested all his 
ready money, $15,000, in the Coutiner.tal loan — a practical proof of his patriotism, since 
its repayment was extremely ini] robable. His influence at the French court was 
unbounded. He was revered tor ).is wit, his genius, his dignity, and his charming con- 
versation. On his return he was elected president of Pennsylvania for three suc- 
cessive years. He gave the whole of his salary, $30,000, to benevolent objects. In 
Ms eighty-second year he was a member of the Constitutional Couvcntion. At his 
death 20,000 persons assembled to do honor to his memory. 

i* Charles Lee, for his conduct at Montuouthand for disrespectful letters to Washing- 
ton and to Congress, was suspended and later dismissed from the army. It is now 
believed that ho was a traitor to the patriot cause. During his captivity he had sup- 
plied Ilowe with a plan for the capture of Philadelphia — a fact not known for many 
years after this. His conduct at Monmouth was no doubt treasonable. 



146 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1778 

tangled in a swamp, were becoming demoralized as they 
retired from the field, when Washington, riding up, bitterly 
rebuked Lee, rallied the men, and sent them back against 
the enemy. The fight lasted all that long, sultry day.' 
In the night Clinton stole away with his men to New York. 

Campaign in Rhode Island. — A combined attack on 
Newport was arranged to be made by the French fleet 
under D'Estaing (des taN') and the American army under 
General Sullivan. Soon after the French entered Narra- 
gansett Bay, the British fleet arrived off the harbor. 
D'Estaing went out to meet it. A storm came on, which 
so shattered both fleets that they were compelled to put 
back for repairs. The French then withdrew, and General 
Sullivan, being thus deserted, retreated just in time to 
escape Clinton, who came from New York with reenforce- 
ments. 

The Wyoming Massacre. — In July a band of Tories and 
Indians, under Butler, entered the beautiful Wyoming 
valley, on the Susquehanna.'- Most of the able-bodied 
men had gone to the war. The women and children fled 
to a fort for refuge. A handful of old men and boys 
sallied out to meet the invaders, but were quickly de- 
feated. All that night the Indians tortured their prison- 

1 Durinfj; tlic day an urtillcryman named Hays was shot at his post. His wife, Mary, 
while brinf-'inj; water to lier husband troni a spring, saw biiu fall. Instantly droijping 
her pitcher, she hastened to the cannon, seized the rammer, and with i^reat skill aud 
courage performed her husband's duty. The soldiers gave her the nickname of Molly 
Pitcher. Congress voted her a sergeant's commission warrant with half-pay through 
life. 

2The lands granted by the charters of Connecticut and Pennsylvania overlapped; 
hence for a long time the northern part of Pennsylvania was in disput^^ between these 
two colonies. The Wyoming valley was settled by Connecticut men, under the man- 
agement of a Connecticut company, only a few years before the outbreak of the- Revo- 
lution. The armed efforts of the Pennsylvania authorities to dispossess these settlers 
amounted almost to civil war, when the Revolution turned the attention of all in 
another direction. The dispute was finally settled by Congi-ess in favor of Pennsyl- 
vania. 



1779] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 147 

ers in every way that savage cruelty could devise. The 
next day the fort was surrendered on promise of safety, 
but Butler could not restrain his savage allies. By night 
the whole valley was ablaze with burning dwellings, while 
the people fled for their lives through the wilderness. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Effects of Saratoga. — Fiske's American Revolution, vol. ii. pp. 1-11. 

EVENTS OF 1779 

Campaign in the South. — At the close of the autumn of 
1778 the British transferred the war to Georgia, and the 
South became henceforth the principal seat of conflict. 
Savannah and Augusta were captured (p. 152), and soon 
the entire State was apparently conquered. The British 
governor being restored, Great Britain could once more 
boast of a royal province among the colonies. The British 
general, Prevost (preh vo'), next marched against Charles- 
ton and summoned the city to surrender ; but was driven 
off by Lincoln. 

French -American Attack on Savannah. — In September a 
French force under D'Estaing joined Lincoln in besieging 
Savannah. After a severe bombardment, an unsuccessful 
assault was made, in which many lives were lost. Count 
Pulaski^ was mortally wounded. The simple-hearted 
Sergeant Jasper died grasping the banner presented to 
his regiment at Fort Moultrie (p. 130). 

Campaign in the North. — Clinton at New York did little 
except to send out predatory parties. Norwalk, Fairfield, 
and New Haven, Conn., were either burned or plundered. 

1 Count Pulaski was a Polish patriot who, having lost his father and brothers in the 
hopeless defense of his country, and being himself outlawed, came to flpht for the 
freedom of America. He commanded a famous independent corps called " Pulaski's 
Legion." He was buried in the Savannah River. 



148 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1779 

Tryon, who commauded the Connecticut expedition/ 
boasted of his clemency in leaving a single house standing 
on the New England coast. 

The Capture of Stony Point (July 16), a British outpost on 
the Hudson, by General Wayne, was one of the most bril- 
liant exploits of the war. Stealing up in the darkness to 
the base of the hill on which the fort was situated, Wayne's 
men began tlie ascent, with unloaded muskets and fixed 
bayonets. They had nearly reached the sentinel before 
they were discovered. Fire was at once opened upon them. 
Wayne was wounded, but commanded his aids to carry 
him along with them at the head of the column. The 
rush of his men was irresistible. An instant more, and 
a deafening shout told that the fort was won. The 
British lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners several 
hundred men. 

General Sullivan''s Expedition. — The atrocities of the In- 
dians had kept the inhabitants of the upper Susquehanna 
and Mohawk valleys in continued terror. In the summer. 
General Sullivan led an expedition into the Iroquois coun- 
try. At Newtown, now Elmira, N. Y., he defeated the In- 
dians and their Tory allies in a fierce battle, and then 
marched to and fro through the beautiful region east of 
the Genesee, laying waste the Indians' cornfields, felling 
their orchards, and buining their houses. 

Clark^s Conquest of the West. — In 1 778 George Rogers 
Clark had succeeded, with only 200 men, in overawing the 
Indians and capturing the few British posts in a vast 
region in the wild west, north of the Ohio ; but the British 

I General Putnam was at Horse Neck, Connectiont, when Tryon was in the vicinity. 
Hastily fratlicring a few militia, he annoyed tlie British as lonR as po88il)le, anil then, 
compelled to flee liefore the enemy's overwlielminjL: force, his men hid themselves in 
the acyaeent swamp, while he, spurring his spirited horse over a precipice, descended 
a zigzag path where the British dragoons did not dare to follow. 



1779] 



NAVAL EXPLOITS 



149 




CLARK'S CONQUEST OF THE NORTHWEST. 



recaptured Vincennes. In a vigorous campaign in 1779, 
Clark again took Vincennes, and established the author- 
ity of Virginia 
throughout this 
country as far 
west as the Mis- 
sissippi Eiver. 

Naval Exploits. 
— At the begin- 
ning of the war 
the colonists fit- 
ted out privateers 
to cruise along 
the New England 
coast; and Congress ordered the building of a few war 
ships. Swift sailing vessels, manned by bold seamen, 
soon infested every avenue of commerce. Within three 
years they captured hundreds of British ships. They 
even cruised around the British Isles, and, entering har- 
bors, seized and burned ships lying at English wharfs. 

Paul Jones is the most famous of these naval heroes. 
While cruising with a small squadron off the northeast 
coast of England, he met the Serapis and the Countess of 
Scarborough convoying a fleet of merchantmen. In the 
evening of September 23, 1779, he laid his own vessel, 
the Bonhomme Richard,^ alongside the Serajns, and a 
desperate struggle ensued. In the midst of the engage- 
ment he lashed the ships together.'- The crews then 



' Jones had given this name (Goodman Ricliard) to hia ship in honor of Dr. Frank- 
lin, whose sayings as " Poor Ricliard " he warmly admired. 

- The ships had twice fallen foul of each other. The flr.st time, the Serapis hailed 
the Richard, asking if she had " struck her colors." " I have not yet begun to fight," 
was the reply of Jones. The Pallas, one of Jones's squadron, captured the Co^mtess 
of Scarborough, but his other ships gave no aid. 



150 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1780 

fought hand to hand. The Richard was old and rotten. 
Water poured into the hold. Three times both vessels 
were on fire. About ten o'clock the Scnvpls surrendered. 
Jones transferred his crew from the fast-sinking vessel to 
the captured frigate, and sailed for Holland. 




t'Al'TURE OF TUE SERAPI6. 



EVENTS OF 1780 



Campaign in the South. — Georgia having been subdued, 
the British under Clinton carried the war into South 
Carolina. Charleston was attacked by land and sea. 
General Lincoln, after enduring a siege of forty days and 
a terrible bombardment, was forced to surrender. Maraud- 
ing expeditions' soon overran the whole State. Clinton 
returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. 

' Ono of these, under the comtnaDd of the brutal Tarloton, at Waxhaw Creek 
(p. 152), engaged a body of Contineutal troops. The British jcave no quarter, and after 
the Americans surrendered, mercilessly maimed and butchered the larger portion of 
them. "Tarleton's quarter" became, henceforth, a proverb in the South. 



1780] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 151 

Battle of Camden (August 16). — General Gates, " the con- 
queror of Burgoyne," taking command of new troops in 
the South, marched to meet Cornwallis near Camden. 
Singularly, both generals had appointed the same time to 
make a night attack; so the advance guards of the two 
armies unexpectedly met in the woods. After some sharp 
skirmishing they waited for day. At dawn Cornwallis 
ordered a charge. The American militia, demoralized by 
the fighting in the night, fled at the first fire ; but De Kalb, 
with the Continental regulars, stood firm. At last he fell, 
pierced with eleven wounds. His brave comrades for a 
time fought desperately over his body, but were over- 
whelmed by numbers. The army was so scattered that it 
could not be collected. A few of the officers met Gates 
eighty miles in the rear with no soldiers. 

Partisan Corps. — The Carolinas contained many Tories, 
who helped to restore British rule. Many joined the 
British army; others organized companies that robbed 
and murdered their Whig neighbors. On the other hand, 
there were patriot bands which made their headquarters 
in swamps, and sallied out as occasion offered. These 
partisan corps kept the country in continual terror. 
Marion,^ Sumter,'-^ Pickens, and Henry Lee were noted 
patriot leaders. Their bauds were strong enough to cut 
off British detachments, and even to capture small garri- 

' A British officer, sent to negotiate couceming an excbange of prisoners, dined with 
Marion. The dinner consisted of roasted potatoes, served on pieces of bark. Surprised 
at this meager diet, he made some inquiries. He foiuwi that this was the patriots' 
customary fare ; that the patriot geiierul received no pay; and that this "Bayard of 
the South," as Marion was called, had then neither blanket nor hat. This devotion to 
liberty so affected the officer that he resigned his commission. 

- At Hanging Kock (August 6) Sumter gained a victory over a strong body of British 
and Tories. He began the action with only two rounds of ammunition, but soon sup- 
plied himself from the fleeing Tories. Frequently, in these contests, a portion of the 
bands would go into a battle without guns, arming themselves with the muskets of 
their comrades as they fell. 




THE 

SOITHERN COLOMES 

DURING THE 

REVOLUTION 

6CALE OF MtLES 



Greenwich 76 



[1780 



CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 



153 



sons. The cruel treatment which the Whigs received 
from the British drove many to this partisan warfare. 
The issue of the contest in the South was mainly decided 
by these bold citizen soldiers. 

Kings Mountain (October 7). — At Kings Mountain, on the 
border of North and South Carolina, a large body of in- 




BATTLE OF KINGS MOUNTAIN. 



^^"^ 



dependent riflemen, mainly from 

the frontier settlements on the 

u^Dper Tennessee River, attacked 

¥" Ferguson, who had been sent out to rally 

the Tories of the neighborhood. Ferguson and 

about one third of his men were killed or severely 

wounded, and the remainder were taken prisoners. 

Continental Paper Money had now been issued by Con- 
gress to the amount of $200,000,000. At this time it was 
of so little value that $40 in bills was worth only $1 in 
specie. A pair of boots cost $600 in Continental cur- 



B. HIST. U. S. — 10 



154 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1780 

rency. A soldier's pay for a month would hardly buy one 
meal for his family. To make the matter worse, the Brit- 
ish flooded the country with counterfeits which could not 
be told from the genuine. Many persons refused to take 
Continental money. The difficulty of procuring supplies 
and the sufferings of the soldiers may readily be imagined.^ 
The Pennsylvania regiments in camp at Morristowu, 
claiming that their time had expired, demanded their dis- 
charge. At last, 1300 strong, they set out (January 1 , 1781) 
for Philadelphia, to secure redress at the point of the bay- 
onet; but they halted at Princeton, and a committee of 
the Congress succeeded in satisfying and disbanding them. 
Arnold's Treason. — The British did* little in the North, 
and the condition of Washington's army prevented his 
making any movement. Meanwhile, the cause of liberty 
suffered a terrible blow from one who had been its gallant 
defender. General Arnold, whose bravery at Quebec and 
Saratoga had awakened universal admiration, was sta- 
tioned at Philadelphia while his wound was healing. He 
there married a Tory lady, and lived in great extrava- 
gance. In the exercise of his command, he made some 
enemies among the Whigs. Charges being preferred 
against him, he was convicted and sentenced to be rep- 
rimanded by the commander in chief. Washington per- 
formed the duty very gently; but Ai-nold resolved to 
gratify both his revenge and his love of money by betray- 
ing his country. Accordingly, he secured from Washing- 
ton the command of West Point, at that time the most 
important post in America. He then proposed to Clinton 
to surrender it to the British. The offer was accepted, 
and Major Andre (an'dra) was appointed to confer with 

1 In this crisis Robert Morris sent 3,000,000 rations. Soldiers' relief associations, 
organized bj' tbe women of Pbiladelphia, made and sent clothing to the patriot army. 



1780] ARNOLD'S TREASON 155 

him. Andre ascended the Hudson on the British ship 
Vulture, and went ashore by night to meet the traitor 
(September 21). Morning dawned before they had com- 
pleted their plans. Meantime, the Vulture was fired on, 
and dropped down the river. Andre, now left within the 
American lines, started for New York by land. He had 
reached Tarrytown in safety, when, at a sudden turn in the 




TRIAL OF ANDRE. 

road, his horse's reins were seized, and three men ' sprang 
before him. They searched him, and, finding suspicious 
papers, carried him to the nearest American post. Arnold 

1 The names of these men were Paulding, Van Wart, and Williams. Andi'6 offered 
them his horse, watch, purse, and any sum they might name, if they would release 
him. The patriots declared that they would not let him go for ten thousand guineas- 
Congress voted to each of them a silver medal and a pension for life. 



156 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 

was notified in time to make his escape ; ' but West Point 
was saved to the Americans. Andre was tried and hanged 
as a spy. The British made every effort to save him, and 
his fate awakened universal sympathy. 

EVENTS OF 1 781 

Campaign in the South. — General Greene, who was ap- 
pointed to succeed General Gates, found the American 
army in the South to consist of only 2000 half-clothed, 
half-starved men. A part of his force, under Morgan, 
was attacked (January 17) at Cowpens" by Tarleton. In 
the midst of the fight the Americans fell back to a better 
position. The Biitish mistook this for a retreat, and were 
rushing on in confusion, when the Americans faced about, 
poured in a deadly fire at close quarters, captured half 
Tarleton's force, and drove the rest in utter rout. Tarle- 
ton fled to Cornwallis, who set out in hot haste, eager to 
punish the victors and recapture the prisoners. Morgan 
started for Virginia, and crossed the Catawba just before 
Cornwallis appeared in sight. Night came on, and with il 
rain, which raised the river so high as to keep the impa- 
tient Cornwallis waiting three days. 

Greeners Retreat. — General Greene now joined Morgan, 

' He received, as tlio reward of liis treachery, £6315, a colonelcy In the British army, 
and the contempt of everybody. He was thoroughly despised by the British officers, 
and often Insulted. A member of Parliament, about to address the House of Commons, 
happening, as he rose, to see Arnold in the gallery, said, pointing to the traitor, 
" Mr. Speaker, 1 will not speak while that man is in the house." When Talleyrand was 
about to come to America, he sought letters of introduction from Arnold, but received 
the reply, " I was born in America ; I lived there to the prime of my life ; but alas I I 
can call no man in America my friend." 

-' Colonel William A. Washington, in a personal combat in this battle, wounded 
Tarleton. Months afterward, the British officer, while conversing with Mrs. .Iodps. a 
witty American lady, sueeringly said, "That Colonel Washington is very Illiterate; 
I am told that he can not write his name." "Ah, Colonel," replied she, "you bear 
evidence that he can make his mark." 



1781] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 157 

and conducted the retreat. At the Yadkin, just as the 
Americans had reached the other side, it began to rain. 
When CornwaUis came up, the river was so swollen that 
he could not cross. However, he marched up the stream, 
effected a passage, and was soon in full pursuit again. 
Now came a race, on parallel roads, thirty miles a day, 
for the fords of the Dan. Greene I'eached them first, and 
Cornwallis gave up the chase.' 

Campaign Closed. — Having rested his men, Glreene again 
took the field, and at Gtuilford Court House (March 15) 
he hazarded a battle. His forces were skillfully drawn up 
in three lines, which the British charged in succession. 
The Americans at last retired, but the British had bought 
their victory so dearly that Cornwallis also retreated. 
Greene again pursuing, Cornwallis shut himself up in 
Wilmington. Thereupon, Greene turned into South Caro- 
lina, and, with the aid of Marion, Sumter, Lee, and Pickens, 
nearly delivered this State and Georgia from British 
rule.^ In the battle of Eutaw Speings (September 8) the 
British were so crippled that they retired toward Charles- 
ton. Cornwallis, declining to follow Greene into South 
Carolina, had already gone north into Virginia, and 
though a fierce partisan warfare still distracted the coun- 
try, this engagement closed the long contest in the South. 

1 During this retreat, General Greene, after a hard day's ride in the rain, alighted 
at the door of Mrs. Elizabeth Steele, in Salisbury, N. C, announcing himself as 
" fatigued, hungry, cold, and penniless." Quickly providing the honored guest with 
a warm .supper before a cheerful fire, this patriotic woman brought forth two .small 
bags of specie, her earnings for years. "Take these," she said ; " you will want them, 
and I can do without them," "Never," says his biographer, "did relief come at a 
more needy moment; the hero resumed his dangerous journey that night with a 
lightened heart." 

2 Congress voted the highest honors to General Greene, who, by his prudence, 
wisdom, and valor, had, with such insignificant forces and miserable equipments, 
achieved so much for the cause of liberty. He never gained a decided victory, yet 
his defeats had all the efl'ect of successes, and his very retreats strengthened the 
confidence of his men and weakened that of the enemy. 



158 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 

Campaign in Virginia. — The traitor Arnold, now zealous 
in the British cause, led an expedition into Virginia. He 
conducted the war with great brutality, burning private 
as well as public property. Lafayette was sent to check 
him, but with his small force could accomplish little. 
Cornwallis, arriving from the south, now took Arnold's 
place, and continued this marauding tour. Clinton, how- 
ever, fearing Washington, who seemed to threaten New 
York, directed Cornwallis to keep near the seacoast so as 
to be ready to help him. Accordingly, Cornwallis, after 
having destroyed ten million dollars' worth of property, 
fortified himself at Yorktown. 

Siege of Yorktown. — It was arranged to attack Corn- 
wallis at this place ' by the combined American and 
French forces. Washington, by a feint on New York, 
kept Clinton in the dark regarding his plans until he was 
far on his way south with his swift-marching army.- Late 
in September the joint forces, 1G,000 strong,'^ took 
up their position before Yorktown. Batteries were 
opened ^ upon the city, and the British vessels in the 
harbor were fired by red-hot shot. Two redoubts were 
carried, one by the Americans, the other by the French. 

' In finally dotcrniininK npon tliia Yorktown campaign, WasliiniErton \vas Inflnenced 
by Robert Morris, who ohstiuately refused to advance a dollar for any otbcr enterprise, 
and who issued $l,40(),(ioo of his notes to secure the capture of Cornwallis. 

2 Clinton sent Arnold on a pillaging tour into Connecticut in order to force Wash- 
Inirton to return. He, however, was not to be diverted from his great enterprise, and 
left New England to take care of herself. New London was pillaged and burned, 
Arnold watching the fire from a church steeple. At Fort Griswold the commander 
and half the garrison were butchered. 

•' There were present about 5500 Continentals, 7000 French, and, in addition, about 
3500 Virginia militia under Governor Nelson. A French fleet prevented Cornwallis 
from esccaping by sea. The most hearty good will prevailed among the besiegers. 
The patriots slept in the open air, that their allies might use their tents. 

* Governor Nelson commanded the battery that fired first upon the British. Com- 
wallis occupied the govemor'a fine stone mansion. The patriot pointed one of his 
heaviest guns toward his house, and ordered the gunner to tire upon it with vigor. 
The British could not make even the home of the noble Nelson a shield against him. 



1781] SURRENDEE OF CORNWALLIS 159 

Comwallis could see no hope of escape, and capitulated 
(October 19).i 

The Effect. — Both parties felt that this surrender virtu- 
ally ended the war. Joy pervaded every patriot heart.^ 




" PAST TWO O'CLOCK, AND CORNWALLIS IS TAKEN, 



1 The scene of the siirreuder was imposing. The army was drawn up in two lines, 
extending over a uille— the Americans on one side with General Washington at the 
head, and the French on the other with Count Rochambeau (ro shoN bo'). The captive 
army, about 7000 men, marched slowly out between them. A prodigious crowd, 
anxious to see Coruwallis, had assembled; but the haughty general feigned illness, 
and sent his sword by a subordinate. Washington directed the sword to be delivered 
to General Lincoln, who, eighteen months before, had surrendered at Charleston. 

- The news reached Philadelphia at the dead of night. The people were awakened 
by the watchman's cry, " Past two o'clock, and Comwallis is taken." Lights flashed 



160 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 

All the hardships of the past wei-e forgotten iii the 
thought that America was free. 

All hope of subduing America was now abandoned by 
the people of England, and they loudly demanded the 
removal of the ministers who still counseled war. The 
House of Commons voted that whoever advised the king to 
continue hostilities should be considered a public enemy. 

RESULTS OF THE WAR 

Difficulties of the Country and Army. — The situation of 
the United States at this time was perilous. Commerce 
had been destroyed by the war. The currency was worth- 
less paper money. War had been the main business of 
the country for years, and all trade, manufactures, and 
agriculture had been neglected. Villages had been burned, 
ships destroyed, and crops laid waste. The British held 
Charleston and Savannah about a year. New York about 
two years, and forts in the Northwest several years, after 
the surrender at Yorktown. Ceorge III. was obstinate, 
and war might be resumed. Yet the Amej-ican army was 
in almost open rebellion. The soldiers, afraid they should 
be disbanded and sent home without pay, petitioned Con- 
gress, but received no satisfaction. The treasury was 
empty. At this crisis, certain persons asked Washington 
to become king. The noble patriot spurned the proposal 
indignantly. A paper having been circulated advising 
violent measures, Washington addressed the officers, and 
besought them not to mar their fair record of patriotic 
service by any rash proceedings. His influence prevailed, 

tlironph the houses, and soon the streets vcerc tliioiifred witli crowds oofrer to learn 
tlie filad news. Some were speechless with dclifrht. Many wep<, ;md the old (h)or- 
keeper of Coufrrcss died <>f joy. Cou^ress met at ini early hour, and that afternoou 
marched in solcum procession to church to return thauk.s to Almighty God. 



1783] PEACE 161 

both with the army and with Congress, and the difficulty 
was amicably settled/ 

Peace. — A treaty was signed at Paris (September 3, 
1783) acknowledging the independence of the United 
States. Soon afterwards the army was disbanded. Wash- 
ington bade his officers an affecting farewell, and retired 
to Mount Vernon, followed by the thanksgiving of a grate- 
ful people. 

The United States at first extended west only to the 
Mississippi, and south only to Florida. Spain, being allied 
with France, had been engaged in the war, and as a result 
regained Florida, which she had lost to the British twenty 
years before (p. 99). Hence our country was bounded 
west and south by Spanish territory, and north, as now, 
by British. 

The Western Lands. — One result of the Revolution was 
to throw open for settlement the lands west of the Appa- 
lachian Mountains. The restriction of the British gov- 
ernment in favor of the Indians (p. 100) being removed, 
settlers poured into what are now Kentucky and Tennes- 
see, and a little later iuto the lands northwest of the Ohio 
River. The lands between the Appalachian Mountains 
and the Mississippi River were claimed, under "sea to 
sea" charters, by the six States of Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
Georgia. New York also claimed a large area, under 
treaties with the Indians, and Virginia had strengthened 
her claim by actual conquest (p. 149). Certain regions 
were claimed by two or three different States. But the 
States which had no Western claims urged that this 

1 The country was again indebted for the settlement of this difflculty to Kobert 
Morris, Superintendent of Finance, who secured money to pay the army by the issue of 
bis own personal notes. 




l62 



1787] WEAKNESS OF THE GOVERNMENT 163 

land had been wrested from Great Britain through the 
joint efforts of all; and finally, to prevent further dis- 
pute, the seven land-claiming States at different times 
ceded their claims, or most of them, to Congress/ 

For the government of the Territory Northwest of the 
Ohio River,^ Congress passed the famous Ordinance of 
1787. Besides providing for the territorial offices, etc., 
this ordinance forbade slavery in the Territory, and said 
that the land should in time be divided into three or five 
States. 

Weakness of the Federal Government. — During the war, 
the thirteen States had agreed upon the Articles of Con- 
federation, but this plan of government conferred little 
power on Congress. It could recommend, but not en- 
force; it could only advise action, leaving the States to 
do practically as they pleased. There were no United 
States courts, and no President. Bitter jealousy existed 
among the several States, both with regard to one another 
and with regard to a general government. The popular 
desire was to let each State remain independent, and have 
no strong national authority. But as each State made its 
own laws about commerce, and even levied duties on 
goods brought from other States, the trade of the country 
was greatly crippled. A heavy debt had been incurred 



J New York was the first to present her western territory to the general government 
\1781). Virginia followed her example in 1784, donating the great Nortliwest Territory 
— a princely domain, which, if retained, would have made her the richest of the States ; 
Bhe reserved only 3,709,848 acres in Ohio, which she subsequently sold in small tracts to 
settlers. Massachusetts relinquished her claim iu 178.5, retaining a proprietary right 
over large tracts in New York. Connecticut in 1783 did similarly, and from the sale 
of her lanrls in Ohio (the " Western Reserve ") laid the foundation of her school fund. 
North Carolina (1789), South Carolina (1787), and Georgia (1802) gave up their claims to 
territory from which have been carved the State of Tennessee and the northern part 
of Mississippi and Alabama. 

■i This territory embraced the present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
Wisconein, and part of Minnesota. 



164 CONSTITUTION ADOPTED [1787 

by the war. Congress had no monej', and could not levy- 
taxes. It asked the States to pay, but they were too jeal- 
ous of Congress to heed its requests. "We are," said 
Washington, " one nation to-day, and thirteen to-morrow." 
In Massachusetts large bodies of men assembled, refusing 
to pay their taxes and threatening to overturn the govern- 
ment. This insurrection, known as Shays's Rebellion, 
from the name of its leader, was put down by State 
militia under General Lincoln (1787). 

Constitution Adopted. — In these circumstances many 
of the best men of the land felt the need of a stronger na- 
tional government, A convention was called in Philadel- 
phia to revise the Articles of Confederation. Washington 
was chosen its president. After much deliberation,^ an 
entirely new Constitution was adopted by the convention 
(September 17, 1787), to go into effect Avhen it should be 
ratified by nine States." Within a year it was ratified by 

' Many of tbe i)rovi8lon8 of tlio Constitution were the result of compromises. For 
instance, the delegates ft-om large i^tates iiisistetl tlmtflio number of representatives 
sent by each State to Congress should depend ou population, while the delegates from 
small States said that the nnujber should bo the same for all the States. This question 
was settled l)y a coniproniisc providing tliat the States shauld have equal representa- 
tion in the Senate, but representation according to population in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. By another coujproiiiise it was provided that in determining the popula- 
tion live slaves should count the same as three I'reo persons. Some of the Southern 
States wislied to import more slaves, for use on their plantations and also to increase 
their representation in Congress; and by another compromise it was iirovided that 
the slave trade should not be forbidden by Congress before the year 1808. 

'i The new Constitution met with the most violent opposition. Tlio people were 
<lividcil into two parties — the I'ederalisln and the Anti-Fcilcrulists. The Federalists fa- 
vored the Constitution and sought to increase the powers of the national government 
and thus strengthen the Union at home and abroad. The Anti-Federalists opposed the 
Constitution, were jealous of Congress, and feared too nuich national power, lest a mon- 
archy should be established. The nation was agitated by the most earnest and thought- 
ful as well as the most virulent speeches on both sides. The question of ratification 
was decided in each State by a convention of delegates chosen by the people; and in 
several of these conventions the vote was very close. North Carolina and Rhode Island 
deferred action on the matter; the former ratified the Constitution in November, 1789, 
and Rhode Island in 1790. Early in 1789 presidential elections were held in each of the 
eleven States that had then adopted the Constitution, except New York, where the 
legislature had mad(! no provision for the election. The ten States chose sixty-nine 



1789] 



PLAN OF GOVEENMENT 



165 



eleven States, and in 1789 the new government went into 
operation. 

During the next epoch we shall notice the growth of 
the country under the wise provisions of this Constitution. 




KOUM IN INDEPENDKNCK HALL WUEHK THE CONSTITUTION WAS FRAMED. 

Let us now consider the character of the national govern- 
ment which it provided for, and the division of powers 
between the nation and the States. 

Plan of Government. — The government of the United 
States is divided into three branches. (1) The lawmaking 
branch consists of Congress.^ (2) The ]aw-enforcing branch 

presidential electors. Under the Constitution as originally adopted, eaoli elector voted 
for two persons. The candidate who received the highest number of votes (if the 
choice of a majority of tlie electors) was declared President, and the next highest 
Vice President. In this first election Washington received the highest number (69), 
and John Adams the next highest (31). 

1 The Congress is composed of two houses or bodies of men, called the Senate and 
the House of Representatives, both of which must vote iu favor of a proposed law, or 



166 CONSTITUTION ADOPTED [1789 

consists of the President and many officials under bim. 
(3) The law-explaining branch consists of the Supreme 
Court and various lower courts established by Congress. 
The congressmen and the President are elected directly 
or indirectly by the people, but the judges of the United 
States courts are appointed for life by the President, with 
the consent of the Senate. 

Besides the United States Constitution for the whole 
country, there are as many State constitutions as there 
are States, each i^roviding a plan of government for its 
State alone. State constitutions were adopted by the 
various States early in the Revolutionary War, and in 
fact the United States Constitution was modeled largely 
upon these earlier State constitutions. In every State 
government there is a lawmaking branch, or legislature, 
consisting of two houses; a law-enforcing branch, con- 
sisting of the governor and some other officials : and a 
law-explaining branch, consisting of several different 
kinds of courts. The members of the legislature, the 
governor, and in most States the judges of the State 
courts, are elected by the people. In minor details, how- 
ever, the State constitutions vary greatly. 

Thus the citizens of every State have to obey not only 
the laws made by Congress, but also those made by the 
State legislature. But the laws made by Congress must 
be in harmony with the Unitt^d States Constitution ; and 
the laws made by the legislature must be in harmony 
with the State constitution, and also must not conflict 
with the United States Constitution or the laws of Con- 
gress. The United States Constitution and the laws 
made under it are supreme ; in case of dispute as to the 

" bill," before it becomes a law. The old Continental Congress, under the Articles oi 
Confederation, was composed of a single bouse. 



1789] PLAN OF GOVERNMENT 167 

interpretation of this Constitution, the United States Su- 
preme Court is the final judge. 

But although the United States government is su- 
preme, far more laws are made by State legislatures than 
by Congress, and far more disputes are settled in State 
courts than in United States courts. The reason is 
that the United States Constitution gives Congress. the 
right to make laws on only a few subjects ; on all the 
rest each State makes its own laws as though it were 
an independent country. The legislatures make the 
laws on such subjects as marriage and divorce, wills, 
the descent of property, contracts, and many others, and 
for punishing nearly all crimes ; ^ for the United States 
Constitution does not give Congress power to make laws 
on these subjects.-^ Also, local government, or the gov- 
ernment of counties, cities, towns, etc., is entirely under 
the control of the legislatures. In all these matters, 
therefore, there are great differences between different 
States.^ 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

War on the Ocean. — Fiske's American Revolution, vol. ii. pp. 116-130. 
The Constitutional Convention. — Schouler's History of the United States, vol. i. 
pp. 36-47. 

' The political rights and duties of citizens depend more on State law than on 
United States law. It is the State which prescribes the qualifications of voters and 
creates most of the offices to be filled by popular election. The qualifications and 
choice of jurors in United States courts are governed by the laws of Congress, but 
those of jurors in the far more numerous State courts are governed by State law. 

^ Read the Constitution, in the appendix of this book ; from Article I., Section "VIII., 
make a list of the chief subjects on which Congress makes the law. 

3 This is the chief cause of the differences in the names and duties of county, town, 
and city offices. The powers of the local governments, however, are in toll States 
distributed among different officers. The lawmakers (maWng laws or ordinances on 
subjects assigned to them by State law) are generally the county commissioners or 
board of supervisors in counties, the city council or board of aldermen in cities, and in 
some States the whole body of citizens in towns. The chief law-enforcing officers are 
the sheriff in counties, the mayor in cities, and the selectmen or supervisor in towns. 
There are local courts presided over by county and city judges, and by justices of the 
peace. 



168 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Quarrels with the Mother Country. 



Navigation Acts, etc. 

Powers of the Ruyal Governors. 



o 

H 

a 
o 
> 

o 

l-l 

w 



Causes of 
American 
Kevolutiou 



the 



1. Enforcement of Navigation Acts. 

2. Ta.xation without Repre- < - fX'^^uA Acu. 

sentation. ( c. Mutiny Act. 

3. Boston Massacre. 

4. Boston Tea Party. 

5. Climax reached. 



3. First Ooatiaeiital Coagress (1774). 



4. Events of 177.5. 
(1st Year of War.) 



.5. Events of 1776. 
(2d Year of War.) 



6. Events of ITTT. 
(3d Year of War.) 



7. Events of 177«. 
(4th Year of War.) 



8. Events of 1770. 
(5th Y'ear of AVar.) 



9. Events of 1780. 
(6th Year of War.) 



10. Events of 1781. 
(7th Year of War.) 



> a. Description. 
I b. — ■ 



Efiict*. 



11. 



1. Battle of Lexington. 

2. Battle of Bunker Hill. 

3. Capture of Tiuonderoga. 

4. Second Continental Congress. 

5. Condition of Wasliinftton's Army. 

6. Expedition against Canada. 

1. Evacuation of Boston. 

2. Attack on Fort Moultrie. 

3. Declaration of Independence. 
^ a. Battlf of Lniig Island. 



4. Campaign near N. Y. 

5. Robert Morris. 

6. Battle of Trenton. 

1. Battle of Princeton. 

2. Campaign in Ponn. 



3. Campaign in the North. 



b. Tlic E»CHp<'. 

c. \\a<iliiiiKtc>ir« lietrcnt. 

d. Fliglit tliriiugli NtH Jersey, 

a. Description. 
6. Ettects. 



a. Battle of Brandywine. 
6 Battle of Germantown. 
a. I'lan. 
h. BurRoyne's Invasion. 

c. Burgoyne's Difficulties. 

d. Battles of Saratoga. \ «; %';;^,>^"''- 



1. Winter in Valley Forge. 

2. Aid from France. 

3. Battle of Monmouth. 

4. Campaign in Rhode Island. 

5. Wyoming Massacre. 

1. Campaign in the South. < b. 



2. Campaign in the J^^orth. 

3. Naval Exploits. 



British Conquest of Georgia. 
British Attack on Charleston. 
l^eiich-Ain. Attack on Savonnnh. 

n. In Connecticut 

h. Capture of Stony Point. 

c. Sullivan's K.xpcdition. 

d. Clark's Conquest ol the West. 

a. Privateers. 

b. Paul Jones. 

a. Capture of Charleston. 
6. Battle of Caniden. 

c. Partisan Warlare — Marion, Sumter, 
Pickens. Lee. etc. 

d. Kings Mountain. 



Results of the 
War. 



1. Campaign in the South. 

2. Continental Paper Money. 

3. Arnold's Treason. 

1. Campaign in the South. < 

C a. Ravages l>; 

2. Campaign in Virginia. < b. siege of Yi 

1. Difficulties of the Country and Army. 

2. Peace (1783). 

3. The Western Lands. 

4. Weakness of the Federal Government. 

a. The Convention. 
I 6. Keileralists and Anti-FederallstB. 

6. Constitution Adopted. J r. Ratification. 

*■ ' -■ First Presidential Electton. • 

Pl^ of Government. 



a. Battle of Cowpcns. 

b. Greene's Retreat. 

c. Campaign Closed. 
Ravages by Arnold and Comwallis. 

" Yorktown. 



EPOCH IV.-DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
STATES (TO 1861) 

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797)1 

Washington's Inauguration (April 30, 1789). — In the 
choice of the first President of the United States, all hearts 
turned instinctively to Washington. With deep regret he 
left his quiet home at Mount Vernon for the tumults of 
political life. His journey to New York was a continual 
ovation. Crowds of gayly dressed people bearing baskets 
and garlands of flowers, and hailing his appearance with 

• George Washington was bom February 22, 1732 ; died December 14, 1799. He was 
left fatlierless at eleven years of age, and his education was directed by his mother, a 
woman of strong character, who tindly, but fli-mly, exacted implicit obedience. Of 
her Washington learned his fiist lessons in self-command. Although he was bashful 
and hesitating In his speech, his language was clear and manly. Having compiled a 
code of morals and good manners for his own use, he rigidly observed all its quaint 
and formal rules. Before his thirteenth year he had copictl forms for all kinds of legal 
and mercantile papers. His manuscript schoolbooks. which still exist, are models of 
neatiiess and accuracy. His favorite amusements were of a military character; he 
made soldiers of his playmates, and officered all the mock parades. He was of gentle 
blood and high social rank. He inherited some wealth, and acquired more through 
marriage and fortunate investments. On his Potomac farms he had hundreds of 
slaves, and at his Mount Vernon home he was like the prince of a wide domain, free 
from dependence or restraint. He was fond of equipage and the appurtenances of 
high life, and although he always rode on horseback, his family had a " chariot and 
four," with "black postilions in scarlet and white livery." This generous style of 
living, added perhaps to his native reserve, exposed him to the charge of aristocratic 
feeling. AVhile at home he spent much of his. time in riding and hunting. He rose 
early, ate his breakfast of corn cake, hor.ey, and tea, and then rode about his estates; 
his evenings he passed with his family around the blazing hearth, retiring between 
nine and ten. He loved to linger at the table, cracking nuts and relating his adven- 
tures. In personal appearance, Washington was over six feet in height, robust, grace- 
ful, and perfectly erect. His manner was formal and dignified. He was more solid 
than brilliant, and had more judgment than genius. He had great dread of public life, 

169 



170 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1789 



shouts of joy, met him at every village. On the balcony 
of old Federal Hall, New York city, he took the oath to 
support the Constitution of the United States. 




WASHINGTON'S ENTRY INTO NEW YuUK. 

Difficulties beset the new government on every hand. 
The treasury was empty, and the United States had no 
credit. The Indians were hostile. Pirates from the Bar- 
bary States attacked our ships, and American citizens were 

and. cared little for books. A consistent Christian, ho was a vestryman and regular 
attendant of the Episcopal Church. A Ann advocate of free institutions, he still 
believed in a strong government and strictly enforced laws. As President ho care- 
fully weighed his decisions; but, his policy once settled, he pursued it with stendiuess 
and dignity, however great the opposition. As an oflicer ho was brave, enterprising, 
and cautious. His campaigns were rarely startling, but always judicious. He was 
capable of great endurance. Calm in defeat, sober in victory, commanding at all 
times, and irresistible when aroused, he exercised equal authority over himself and 
his army. His last illness was brief, and his closing hours were marked by his usual 
calmness iind dignity. Europe and America vied in tril)utes to his memory. Said Lord 
Brougham, " Until time shall bo no more, a test of the progress which our race has 
made in "wisdom and virtue will bo derived from the veneration paid to the immortal 
name of Washington." Washington left no children. It has been beautifully said, 
" Providence left him childless that his country might call him Father." 



i789] DOMESTIC AFFAIES 171 

languishing in the dungeons of Algiers. Spain refused us 
the navigation of the Mississippi. Great Britain had not 
yet condescended to send a minister to our government, 
and had made no treaty of commerce with us. We shall 
see how wisely Washington and his cabinet' met these 
difficulties. 

Domestic Affairs. — Finances. — By the advice of Alexan- 
der Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, Congress agreed 
to assume the debts contracted by the States during the 
Revolution, and to pay the national debt in full, excepting 
the Continental money. To provide funds, taxes were 
levied on imported goods and the distillation of spirits. 
A mint and a national bank were established at Phila- 
delphia. By these measures the credit of the United 
States was put upon a firm basis.^ 

The National Capital was at first New York. But at the 
second session of Congress the seat of government was 
transferred to Philadelphia. There it was to remain for 
ten years, and then (1800) be removed to the District of 
Columbia, a tract of land ten miles square ceded for this 
purpose by Maryland and Virginia.'' Here a city was laid 
out in the midst of a wilderness, containing only here and 

1 Three executive departments were now established — the Department of Foreign 
Affairs (now the Department of State), the Department of the Treasury, and the De- 
partment of War. The heads of these departments (Thomas Jefferson, Alexander 
Hamilton, and General Henry Knox) were called Secretaries, and, with the Attorney- 
General (Edmund Randolph), formed the President's cabinet. 

2 The credit of these plans belongs to Hamilton. Daniel Webster said of him, " He 
smote the rock of the national resources, and alnmdant streams of revenue burst 
forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet." 

3 The site for the new capital was not far from the geographical center of the 
inhabited part of the country. Its location, however, was the result of a political 
"deal " or bargain. At first only a minority in Congress favored a site so far south, 
and at the same time Congress seemed likely to vote against the assumption of the 
State debts. To secure a majority for assumption and for the southern location of the 
capital, the friends of each measure combined in voting for both. The District of Co- 
'lumbia now contains but 70 square miles. The 30 square miles lying south of the Poto- 
mac were receded to Virginia in 1846. 

B. HIST. U. 8.— 11 



172 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1793 



there a small cottage. The " Father of his Country " laid 
the corner stone of the Capitol (1793), 

Whitneifs Cotton Gin (1792). — The cotton gin, a machine 
for rapidly separating cotton from the seed, was invented 
by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts.^ This greatly reduced 
the cost of producing cotton, for it had formerly taken a 
day's work to clean a pound of the fiber. The cotton gin 
was destined to have a profound influence on our history. 
Whisky Rebellion {VJ^Vj. — Great opposition was made 
to the taxes levied by Congress. In western Pennsylvania 
the settlers agreed that they would pay no tax on whisky. 
The rioters were so numerous that 15,000 of the militia 
were ordered out to subdue them. Finding the govern- 
ment in earnest, the malcontents laid down their arms. 

Indian Wars. — The Indians of the Northwest attacked 
the growing settlements in the Ohio valley. Two armies 
sent against the Indians were defeated. At last General 

Wayne — " Mad An- 
thony " — was put 
in command. Lit- 
tle Turtle, the In- 
dian chief, now ad- 
vised peace, declar- 



ing that the Ameri- 
cans had "a leader 
who never slept." 
But his counsel was 
rejected, and a des- 
perate battle was 
fought on the Mau- 
mee (August 20, 




INDIAN WAB8 IN THE NOBTHWE8T TEREITORT. 



1 Whitney was at this time staying near Savannah, in Georgia, at the home of the ■ 
■widow of General Greene, the famous Revolutionary commander. 



1794] 



FOEEIGN AFFAIRS 



173 



1794). Wayne routed the Indians, chased them a great 
distance, laid waste their towns for fifty miles, and com- 
pelled them to make a treaty^ giving up about 25,000 
square miles of land north of the Ohio. 

New States. — Three new States were added to the orig- 
inal thirteen during this administration — ^Vermont, Ken- 
tucky, and Tennessee (p. 244). 

Foreign Affairs. — Great Britain. — Complaints were made 
in England that debts could not be collected in America 
as guaranteed by the treaty of 1783. On the other hand, 
the Americans complained that the British armies had 
carried off their negroes, that posts were still held on the 
frontier, and that 
our seamen were 
impressed into the 
British navy. Fi- 
nally, Chief Justice 
Jay was sent as en- 
voy extraordinary 
to Great Britain. 
He negotiated a 
new treaty (1794), 

which was ratified by the Senate after a 
violent opposition.^ 

Spain and Algiers. — The next year 
(1795), a treaty was made with Spain, securing to the 
United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, and 
fixing the boundary of Florida, which had previously 




1 He told them, it is said, that if they ever violated this agreement he would rise 
from his grave to fight them. He was long remembered by the Western Indians. 

2 This treaty enforced the payment of tbe English debts, but did not in turn forbid 
the impressment of American seamen. Its advocates were threatened with violence 
by angry mobs. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting; insults were offered to 
the British minister; and Jay was burned in cflSgy, 



174 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION [1795 

been in dispute. About the same time, a treaty was 
concluded with Algiers, by which our captives were ran- 
somed and the Mediterranean commerce was opened to 
American vessels. 

France. — The Americans warmly sympathized with 
France, and when war broke out between that country 
and Great Britain, Washington had great difficulty in 
preserving neutrality. He saw that the true American 
policy was to keep free from European alliances. Genet 
(zh' na'), the French minister, relying on the popular feel- 
ing, went so far as to fit out, in the ports of the United 
States, privateers to prey on British commerce. He also 
tried to arouse the people against the government. At 
length, at Washington's request. Genet was recalled. But, 
as we shall see, the difficulty did not end. 

Political Parties. — During the discussion of these vari- 
ous questions, two parties had arisen. Jefferson and 
Madison became leaders of the Democratic-Republican 
party, — generally called the Republican party, — which 
opposed the United States Bank, the British treaty, and 
the assumption of the State debts. Hamilton and Adams 
were leaders of the Federal party, which supported the 
administration. The two parties differed radically in 
their interpretation of the Constitution. The Republicans 
were " strict constructionists " ; that is, they denied to the 
United States governijient any power not clearly and ex- 
pressly granted by the Constitution. For instance, they 
said the government had no right to establish a bank, 
because the Constitution nowhere says anything about 
this matter. The Federalists, on the other hand, were 
"liberal constructionists"; that is, they interpreted the 
Constitution liberally, claiming that certain general clauses 
in the Constitution warranted the exercise of a vast num- 



1796] t>OLITICAL PARTIES 175 

ber of powers not definitely specified/ In 1793 Washing- 
ton and Adams had been reelected ; but Washington now 
declined to serve a third term, and issued his famous 
Farewell Address. So close was the contest between the 
rival parties that Adams, the Federal candidate, was 
elected President by a majority of only three electoral 
votes over Jefferson, the Republican nominee, who became 
Vice President.^ 



ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1797-1801)3 

Domestic Affairs. — Allen and Sedition Laws. — Owing 
to the violent denunciations of the government by the 
friends and emissaries of France, the Alien and Sedition 

1 The Federalists thought the general government should he made strong. The Re- 
publicans, fearing lest the republic should become a monarchy, and the President a 
king, opposed this idea and advocated State rights. In the election of 1796 the Re- 
publicans were accused of being friends of France, and the Federalists of being 
attached to Great Britain and its institutions. This Republican party was the fore- 
runner of the present Democratic party, and must not be confounded with the pres- 
ent Republican party. 

2 Jefferson was elected Vice President because the Federal electors, who were in 
a majority, did not all write the same name in the second place on their ballots. 
There was no such thing as a party national convention for many years after this. In 
the election of 179G, however, it was generally understood who wei-e the presidential 
candidates ; but for the second place on the ticket each party scattered votes among 
severcal different men. 

3 John Adams was born 173.5 ; died 182C. He was a member of the First and the 
Second Continental Cougi'css, and nominated Washington as commander in chief. 
Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, but Adan^s secured its adoption in a 
three-days debate. He was a tireless worker, and had the reputation of having the 
clearest head and firmest heart of any man in Congress. As "President, he lost the 
reputation he had gained as Congressman. His enemies accused him of being a bad 
judge of men, of clinging to old unpopiilar notions, and of having little control over 
his temper. They also ridiculed his egotism, which they declared to be inordinate. 
He lived, however, to see the prejudice against his administration give place to a 
juster estimate of his great worth and exalted integrity. Adams and Jefferson were 
firm friends during the Revolution, but political strife alienated them. On their 
return to private life they became reconciled. They died on the same day— the 
fiftieth nimiversary of American independence. Tims, by the passing away of these 
two remarkable men, was made memorable the tth of July, 1826. 



170 ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION [1798 

Laws were passed. Under them, the President could 
expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed 
injurious to the United States; and any one libeling Con- 
gress, the President, or the government, could be fined or 
imprisoned. The Sedition Law was a most unpopular 
measure, and its enforcement excited the bitterest feeling. 
Both it and the Alien Law were soon repealed. 

Foreign Affairs. — France. — French affairs early assumed 
a serious aspect. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were 
captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the 
French Directory unless a bribe should be paid.^ The 
news of this insult aroused the nation, and the friends of 
France were silenced. Orders were issued to raise an 
army, of which Washington was appointed commander 
in chief.^ Hostilities had commenced on the sea, when 
Napoleon became the First Consul of France, and the war 
was happily arrested. 

Political Parties. — An intense party feeling prevailed 
during the entire administration. The unpopularity of 
the Alien and Sedition Laws reduced the vote for Adams 
and Pinckney, the Federal candidates. The Republican 
candidates, Jefferson and Burr, received the majority of 
votes; but, as each had the same number, the election 
went to the House of Representatives, which chose Jeffer- 
son for President, thus leaving Burr to be Vice President. 

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (iSoi-iSoq)^ 

Purchase of Louisiana (1803). — The most important event 
of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana 

' Charles C. Pinckney, our minister to France, is reported to have replied to 
this insulting demand, " Millions for defense, but not one cent tor tribute." 

2 It was at this time that the song Hail Columbia ■was ■written. 

3 Thomas Jeflferson was born 1743; died 1826. '"Of all the public men who have 
fljjured in the United States," says Parton, "he was incomparably the best scholar 





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178 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1803 

from Napoleon/ By treaty with France, over one million 
square miles of land and the full possession of the Missis- 
sippi were obtained for $15,000,000. 

Domestic Affairs. — The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804- 
180G). — On Jefferson's suggestion, Congress provided for 
an expedition to explore the country west of the Missis- 
sippi, about which very little was then known. Under the 
command of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, officers 
in the army, this exploring party followed the Missouri 
River to its source, descended tbo Columbia to the Pacific 
Ocean, and returned l)y the same route. They were the 
first white men to cross this j^art of the continent, and 
their adventures were full of interest. 

and tbo most Viiriously accomplished man." Ho waH a liolil horseman, a skillful 
hunter, nn elcjiaut penman, a fl:io violinist, a brilliant talker, a Riiperior classical 
scholar, and was profleiciit in fhc modern language.;. On nccount of his talents he was 
styled " the Sago of Monticcllo." That immortal document, tbo Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, -was, -with the exception of a few Avords, entirely his work. He was an 
ardent supporter of the doctrine of State rights, and led the opposition to the Feder- 
alists. After bo became President, howcA-cr, be found the dilTiculty of aduiiuistering 
the government upon that theory. "Tbo executive authority had to be stretched 
until it cracked, to cover tbo purchase of Louisiana"; and bo became convinced on 
other occasions that the federal government, to use his own expression, nuist "show 
its teeth." Like Washington, ho was of aristocratic birt'.i, but bis principles were 
intensely democratic. lie hated ceremonies and titles ; even " Mr." was distasteful to 
him. These traits were tbo more remarkable in one of his superior birth and educa- 
tion, and peculiarly endeared him to tbo common people. lu bis administration there 
■wore i.o more brilliaut levees or courtly ceremonies, as in tbo days of Washington and 
Adams. Instead of delivering an address to Congress in person, as his predecessors 
did, be establisbod tbo custom of sending a written message, fie always dressed in 
plain clothes. The unostentatious example thus set by tbo nation's President was 
wise in its eflfects. Soon the public debt was diminished, the treasury was replenished, 
and the army and navy were reduced. A man of such marked characternecossarily 
made bitter enemies, but Jeflferson commanded the respect of his opponents, while 
the admiration of his friends was unbounded. Tbo last seventeen years of his life 
were passed at Monticello, near his birthplaee. Uo died poor in money, but rich In 
honor. 

' This vast territory had been ceded to France by Spain in ISOO. When news of the ces- 
sion reached New Orleans, tbo oflicer in charge stopped tlie free navigation of the Missis- 
sippi by Americans. Tlic citizens west of the Appalachians denuinded the forcible 
e<^izure of New Orleans, but .TefTerson instead sent to France an otter to buy the city and 
a small a<l,ioining area. Napoleon thereupon offered to sell tlie or tire province, and 
Jefferson accepted the opportunity, though he doubted his constitutional right to do so. 



180 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1804 

The Twelfth Amendment. — Previous t<^ this time eleven 
amendmeuts had Ijeeii made to the Constitution, in the 
manner provided hy that instrument; but they were all 
in the nature of guarantees against oppressive action by 
the national government. Now was made a change in the 
plan of government established by the Constitution. By the 
original method of voting prescribed for the presidential 
electors, no distinction was made between persons voted 
for as President and those really voted for as Vice Presi- 
dent; and it was possible that by some mistake or in- 
trigue the wrong man might be elected to the higher 
office. By the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, 
the electors vote separately for President and for Vice 
President, thus av^oiding any possibility of such mischance. 

Aaron Burr, the Vice President, was Alexander Hamil- 
ton's bitter rival, both in law and in politics, and at 
last challenged him to a duel. Hamilton accepted. The 
affair took place at Weehawken, N. J., on the west bank 
of the Hudson (July 11, 1804). Hamilton fell at the first 
fire, on the very spot where his eldest son had been 
killed shortly before in the same manner. His death pro- 
duced the most profound sensation, and did much to put 
a stop to the practice of dueling, which was then common. 
In the presidential election of 1804, the Republican candi- 
dates, who were elected, were not Jefferson and Burr, but 
Jefferson and Clinton. Burr afterwards went west and 
organized an expedition with the avowed object of forming 
a settlement in northern Mexico. Being suspected, how- 
ever, of a design to break up the Union and found a 
separate confederacy beyond the Appalachian Mountains, 
he was arrested and tried (1807) on a charge of treason.* 

'While awaiting bia trial Burrwaa committed to the common jail — a wretched 
fate for the man who oi\ce lacked but a single vote to make him President. 



1807] FOEEIGN AFPAIES 181 

Although acquitted for want of proof, he yet became an 
outcast. 

Fultoti's Steamboat. — The year 1807 was made memo- 
rable by the first voyage from New York to Albany of 
Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont. Thus the Hud- 
son could boast of having the first successful steamboat 
in the world. ^ 

New State admitted — Ohio (p. 244). 

Foreign Affairs. — War with Tripoli— ^ The Barbary 
States, of which Tripoli is one, for many years sent out 
cruisers which captured vessels of all Christian nations, 
and held their crews as slaves until ransomed. The 
United States, like the European nations, was accustomed 
to pay annual tribute to these pirates to secure exemption 
from their attacks. The pasha of Tripoli became so 
haughty that he declared war (1801) against the United 
States. Jefferson sent a fleet which blockaded " the port 
and repeatedly bombarded the city of Tripoli. The 
frightened pasha was at last glad to make peace. 

Great Britain and France. — During this time Great 
Britain and France were engaged in a desperate struggle. 
Great Britain tried to prevent trade with France, and, in 
turn. Napoleon forbade all commerce with Great Britain. 

' other inventors, botli European and American, bad experimented with steam- 
boats before tliis time. John Fitch showed one on the Delaware in 1787, and in the 
summer of 1790 it made regular trips between Philadelphia and Trenton, though it 
failed to pay expenses. Oliver Evans at Philadelphia, Wi'.liam Longstreet on the 
Savannah River, and John Stevens at Hoboken, also made steamboats before 1807. 
But it was not till after the trip of the Clermrnt that the steamboat was regarded 
with favor and came into general use. The first steamboat to cross the Atlantic was 
the Savannah, in 1810; but she used sails as well as paddle wheels. 

-During this blockade a valiant exploit was performed by Lieutenant Decatur. 
The frigate Philudcljyhia had unfortunately grounded and fallen into the enemy':* 
hands. Concealing his mcTi below, he entered the harbor with a small vessel, which 
he warped alongside the P/)(7«<W/jAta, in the character of a ship in distress. As the 
two vessels struck, the pirat(^s first suspected his design. Instantly he leaped aboaiU 
with his men, swept the affrighted crow into the sea, set the ship on fire, and, amid a 
tremendous cannonade from the shore, escaped without losing a man. 



182 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1807 



As the United States was neutral, its ships did most of 
the carrying trade of Europe. Our vessels thus became 
the prey of both the hostile nations. Besides, Great Brit- 
ain claimed the vight of stopping American vessels on the 
high seas, to search for seamen of English birth ' and 
press them into the British navy. The feeling, already 
deep, was intensified when the Bi'itish frigate Leopard 




l.\l l'KI'..s.--lN(j .sEAAU.N. 



fired into the American frigate Chesapeake^ otf the coast 
of Virginia. The American vessel, being wholly unj^re- 
pared for battle, soon struck her colors. Four of the 
crew, three being Americans by birth, were taken, on the 
])i'ctense that they were deserters. Jefferson immediately 
ordered all British vessels of war to quit the waters of the 

I The American doctrine was that a foreigner naturalized became an American 
citizen; the British, " Once an Englishman, always an Englishman." 



18083 POLITICAL PARTIES 183 

United States. Though Great Britain disavowed the act, 
reparation was tardy, and Congress passed an Embargo 
Act, forbidding American vessels to sail for any foreign 
port. This was intended to protect our ships from cap- 
ture, and to injure Great Britain and France by cutting 
off supplies from them. It was so injurious to our- 
selves, however, in ruining our commerce, that it was 
removed after about a year; but all intercourse with Great 
Britain or France was forbidden. 

Political Parties. — While the country was in this fever- 
ish state, Jefferson's second term expired. Like Wash- 
ington, he declined to serve a third term, and their 
example has been followed ever since. James Madison, 
the iiepublican candidate, who was in sympathy with 
Jefferson's views, was elected as his successor by a large 
majority. The Republicans generally favored a war with 
England, while the Federalists bitterly opposed the war 
policy. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

The Iioiiisiana Purchase.— Schouler's History of the United States, vol. ii. pp. 37-51 
The Embai-go.— Schouler, vol. ii. pp. 159-165, 173-196. 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Battle of Tippecanoe (November 7, 
1811). — British emissaries had been busy arousing the In- 

1 James Madison was born in Virginia in 1751 ; died 1836. In the Convention of 1787 
lie was one of the strongest advocates of the Constitution, and did much to secure its 
adoption. From his political principles he was obliged, though reluctantly, to oppose 
Washington's administration, which lie did in a courteous and temperate manner. He 
led his party in Congress, where he remained till 1797. The next year he drafted the 
famous " Virginia Resolutions of 1798," enunciating the doctrine of State lights, which, 
with the accompanying "Report" in their defense (and the simUar "Kentucky 
Resolutions" drafted by Jefferson), have been the great text-book of the Democratic 
party. He was Secretary of State to Jefferson. After his presidential services he 
retired from public station. Madison's success was not so much the result of a great 



184 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1811 




VICINITY OF THE TIPPECANOE RIVER. 



dians to war. Tecum'seh, a famous chief, seized the 
opportunity to form a confederacy of the Northwestern 

tribes. Governor Harrison, 
of Indiana Territory, who 
proceeded against them with 
a strong force, was attacked 
by night near the Tippecanoe. 
The Indians were led by Te- 
cumseh's brother, "the Proph- 
et," but they were routed 
with great slaughter. 

Foreign Affairs. — Great 
Britdiu. — This Indian war 
aroused the people of the 
West against England. Also, 
the impressment of our sea- 
men and the capture of our 
ships continued. The British government went so far as 
to send war vessels into our waters to seize our ships as 
prizes. The American frigate President, having hailed the 
British sloop of war LittJe Belt, received a cannon shot in 
reply. The fire was returned, and the sloop was soon dis- 
abled; a civil answer was then received. The British 
government refusing to relinquish its offensive course, all 
hope of p^^ace was abandoned. Finally (June 19, 1812), 
war was foi-mally declared against Great Britain. 



natural ability as of intense application and severe accuracy, iris luiud was strong, 
clear, and well balanced, and his memory was ■wonderful. Like John Qnincy Adams, 
he had laid up a frreat store of learning, whicli lie used in the most sliillful manner. 
He always exhausted the subject upon which he spoke. " When he had huishcd, 
nothing remained to be said." His private character was spotless. His manner was 
simple, modest, and uniformly courteous to his ojiponeuts. He eiyoj-ed wit aud 
humor, and told a story admirably. His sunny teniper renuiined with him to the last. 
Some friends coming to visit him during his final illness, he sank smilingly back on his 
couch, saying, " I always talk better when I lie." It has been said of him, " It wae 
his rare good fortune to have a whole nation for his friends." 



1812] 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



185 



SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, OR "WAR OF 1812 " (1812-14) 

1812 

Surrender of Detroit (August 16, 1812). — As in the 
Revolutionary War, it was determined to invade Canada. 
General William Hull accordingly crossed over from De- 
troit and encamped on Canadian soil, but soon retreated. 




The British under Gen- 
eral Brock and the 
Indians under Tecum- 

seli followed him to Detroit, and, landing, advanced at 
once to assault the fort. The garrison was in line, and 
the gunners were standing with lighted matches, await- 
ing the order to fire, when Hull ordered the white flag 
to be raised. Amid the tears of his men, it is said, and 
without even stipulating for the honors of war, he sur- 
rendered not only Detroit, with its garrison and stores, 
but the whole of Michigan Territory. 



186 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1812 



Battle of Queenstown Heights (October 13). — In the fall 
another attempt was made to invade Canada. A small 
body of soldiers was sent by General Van Rensselaer 
across the Niagara River, and drove the British from their 
position at Queenstown Heights. They were soon obliged 
to surrender, however, since the rest of the army, com- 
posed of State militia, denied the constitutional right of 
their commander to take them out of the State, and re- 
fused to follow their comrades to the Canadian shore. 




CONSTITDTION AND GUERRlilBE. 

Naval Victories.— These signal disgraces by land were 
in striking contrast to our successes on the sea. 

Constitution and Giierriere (August 19).— The fight off 
the Banks of Newfoundland between the American frig- 
ate Constitution (popularly called Old Ironsides) and the 
Guerrihre (gar e ar') is memorable. The latter vessel 



1812] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 187 

opened fire first. Captain Isaac Hull ^ refused to answer 
until he had brought his ship into the exact position he 
desired, when he poured broadside after broadside into 
his antagonist, sweeping her deck, shattering her hull, and 
cutting her masts and rigging to pieces. The Guerriere 
soon became unmanageable, and was forced to surrender. 
She was so badly injured that she could not be brought 
into port; while the Constitution, in a few hours, was 
ready for another fight. 

Frolic and Wasp (October 18). — The next noted achieve- 
ment was the defeat of the British brig Frolic by the 
sloop of war Wasp off the coast of North Carolina. When 
the Frolic was boarded by her captors, her colors were 
still flying, there being no one to haul tbem down. The 
man at the helm was the only sailor left on deck un- 
harmed. 

Other victories followed. Privateers scoured every sea, 
inflicting great injury on the British commerce. During 
the year over 300 prizes were captured. 

The Effect of these Naval Victories was to arouse enthu- 
siasm and inspire confidence. Volunteer corps were 
rapidly formed. Madison was reelected, thus stamping 
his war policy with the popular approval. 

1813 

Plan of the Campaign. — Three armies were raised for 
the campaign of 1813 : (1) the Aemy of the North, under 
General Hampton, along Lake Champlain ; (2) the Army 
OF THE Center, under General Dearborn, on the Niagara 
River; and (3) the Army of the West, under General 
Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. All three were to invade 

1 Nephew of General Hull. Hia bravery retrieved the uame from its disgrace. 



188 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1813 

Canada. Proctor was the British general, and Tecumseh 
had command of his Indian allies.* 

The Armies of the Center and North did but little. Gen- 
eral Dearborn attacked York (now Toronto), General Pike 
gallantly leading the assault." The city was bm-ned. 
Next, an expedition against Montreal was begun by this 
army, now under Wilkinson, and the army under Hamp- 
ton; but the plan was abandoned, after a little fighting, 
before the junction of the two armies had been effected. 

Army of the West. — A detachment of General Ilarri- 
son's men was captured at Frenchtown, on the River 
Raisin,'* by Proctor, who later besieged Harrison himself at 
Port Meigs (megz). Repulsed here. Proctor stormed Fort 
Stephenson, garrisoned by only 160 men, under Major 
Croghan, and was again repulsed. As yet, however, the 
British held Michigan Territory and continued to threaten 
Ohio. 

Perry's Victory (September 10) gave a new aspect to 
this year's campaign. When Captain Perry, then only 
twenty-seven years old, was assigned the command of the 

1 The .threat object of tho Indians in battle was to pet scalps, Proctor paying a regu- 
lar bounty for every one. They were therefore loath to take prisoners. 

^ Unfortunately, in tho moment of success the magazine blew up, making fearful 
havoc. Tike was mortally wounded, but lived to hear tho shouts of his men as they 
hauled down the British ensign. At a sign from him the captured flag was placed 
under his head, when ho died, as he had wished, " like Wolfe, in the ai-ms of victorj'." 

3 This party was stationed on the Maumeo, under General Winchester. ETaving 
learned that the people of Frenchtown feared an attack from the Indians, ho allowed 
his military judgment to yield to his humanity, and marched to their relief. He de- 
feated the enemy, but was soon attacked by a body of 1.500 British and Indians under 
Proctor. Winchester was captured in tho course of the battle, and at length his men 
surrendered under the solemn promise that their lives and property should be safe. 
Proctor, however, immediately returned to Maiden with the British, leaving no guard 
over the American wounded. Thereupon, the Indians, maddened by liquor and the 
desire for revenge, meriMlessly tomahawked many, set flrr^ to the houses in which 
others lay, and carried the survivors to Detroit, where they were dragged through the 
streets and offered for sale to the inhabitants. Many of the women of tliat place gave 
for their ransom every article of value which they possessed. The troops were Kcn- 
tucUans, and the war cry of their Bona was henceforth " Remember the Raisin." 



1813] 



SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 



189 



flotilla on Lake Erie, the British were undisputed masters 
of the lake, while his fleet was to be, in part, made out of 
the trees in the forest. By indefatigable exertion he got 
nine vessels, carrying flfty-four guns, ready for action, 
when the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns 
bore down upon his squadron. Perry's flagship, the Law- 
rence^ engaged two of the heaviest vessels of the enemy, 
and fought them till but eight of his men were left. 




PEKRT CARRYING HIS FLAG TO THE NIAGARA. 

He helped these to fire the last gun, and then, leap- 
ing into a boat, bore his flag to the Niagara unharmed, 
though the target for many shots from the British. 
Breaking through the enemy's line, and firing right and 
left, within fifteen minutes after he mounted the deck of 
the Niagara he had won the victory. Perry at once wrote 
to General Harrison, " We have met the enemy, and they 
are ours." This laconic dispatch produced intense ex- 
citement throughout the country. 

1 From its masthead floated a blue pennant bearing the words of the dying Law- 
rence : " Don't give up the ship." (See p. 191.) 
B. HIST. n. S.— 12 



190 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1813 

Battle of the Thames. — Proctor and Tecumseh were at 
Maiden with their motley array of British and Indians, 
2000 strong, waiting to lay waste the frontier. Harrison, 
at Sandusky Bay, was nearly ready to invade Canada, 
and at the news of Perry's victory pushed across the lake. 
Landing at Maiden, which he found deserted, Harrison 
hotly pursued the flying enemy, and overtook them on the 
River Thames. Having drawn up his troops, he ordered 
Colonel Johnson, with his Kentucky horsemen, to chai-ge 
the British in front. Dashing through the forest, they 
broke the enemy's line, and, forming in their rear, pre- 
pared to pour in a deadly fire. The Britisli surrendered, 
but Proctor escaped by the swiftness of his horse. John- 
son then pushed forward to attack the Indians. In the 
heat of the action a bullet, fired by Johnson himself, 
struck Tecumseh. With his death the savages lost aU 
hope, and fled in confusion. 

I'jff'ed. — This victory, with Perry's, relieved Michigan 
Territory, gave us control of Lake Erie, and virtually de- 
cided the war. General Harrison returned amid the plau- 
dits of the nation. 

Naval Battles. — The American navy achieved some 
brilliant successes besides Perry's victory, but it was not 
uniformly victorious. 

Chesapeake and Shannon (Juno 1). — While Captain Law- 
rence was refitting the Chesapeake ' at Boston, a challenge 
was sent him to fight the Shannon, then lying off the har- 
bor- Lawrence, although part of his crew were discharged, 
and the unpaid remainder were almost mutinous, consulted 
only his own heroic spirit, and put to sea. The action 
was biief. A hand grenade bursting in the Chesapeake^s 
arm chest, the enemy took advantage of the confusion 

> This was the ill-starred frigate which struck her flag to the Leopard (p. 182). 



1813] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 191 

and boarded the vessel. A scene of carnage ensued. Law- 
rence, mortally wounded, was carried below. As he left 
the deck he exclaimed, " Don't give up the ship ! " But 
the feeble crew were soon overpowered and the colors 
hauled down. 

War with the Creeks. — Tecumseh had been (1811) 
among the Alabama Indians, and had aroused them to 
take up arms against the Americans, They accordingly 
formed a league (1813), and fell upon Fort Mimms, mas- 
sacring the garrison and 
the defenseless women 
and children. Volunteers 
flocked in from all sides 
to avenge this horrid deed. 
Under General Jackson,^ 
they drove the Indians 
from one place to another, 
until the latter took ref- 
uge on the HoESESHOE 
Bend, where they fortified themselves for the last battle 
(March 27, 1814). The soldiers, with fixed bayonets, scaled 
their breastwork. The Creeks fought with the energy of 
despair, but 600 of their number were killed, and those 
who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms. 

Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. — In the spring the Brit- 
ish began devastating the Southern coast.- Admiral Cock- 
burn (ko'burn), especially, disgraced the British navy by 




Pensacola ^^^ 

i:;A^ n y scale of miles 

G IJ^L 'S 5 S) ii5o i3o ?oo 



CREEK WAR. 



1 An eveut occurred on Jackson's march which illustrates his iron will. For a long 
time his soldiers suflferccl extremely from famine, and at last they mutinied. General 
Jackson rode before the ranks. His left arm, shattered by a ball, was disabled, but in 
his right he held a musket. Sternly ordering the men back to their places, ho declared 
he would shoot the first who advanced. No one stirred, and soon all returned to their 
duty. 

2 New England was spared because of a belief that the Northern States were un- 
friendly to the war, and would yet return to a political union with Great Britain. 



192 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1813 

conduct worse than that of Cornwallis in the Revolution. 
Along the Vii'ginia and Carolina coast he burned bridges, 
farmhouses, and villages ; robbed the inhabitants of their 
crops, stock, and slaves ; plundered churches of their com- 
munion services ; and murdered the sick in their beds. 

1814 

Battle of Lundys Lane. — An American army, under 
Geiiei'al Brown, crossed the Niagara River once more, and 
for the last time invaded Canada. Fort Erie having been 
taken, General Winfield Scott, leading the advance, de- 
feated the British at Chip'pewa (July 5). A second en- 
gagement, one of the bloodiest battles of the war, was 
fought at Lundys Lane (July 25), within sound of Niagara 
Falls. The struggle lasted long after dark. The Ameri- 
cans, though gi'eatly outnumbered, won the victory,^ but 
soon after retreated. 

Battle of Lake Champlain (September 11). — All but 
3000 of the troops at Plattsburg had gone to reonforcc 
General Brown. Learning this fact, Prevost (preh vo'), the 
commander of the British army in Canada, took 12,000 
veteran soldiers who had served under Wellington, and 
marched against that place. As he advanced to the 
attack, tbe British fleet on Lake Champlain assailed the 
American squadron under Commodore Macdonough 
(-don'o).^ The attacking squadron was neai-ly annihilated. 
The little army in Plattsburg, by its vigorous defense, 

1 A battery, located on a hei,t;ht, was tho key to the Biitisli position. Calling Colo- 
nel Miller to bis side, just after nifilitfall, (icneral Brown asked him if he could take it. 
" I'll try, sir," was the fearless reply. Heading his regiment, he steadily niiirchcd up 
the height and secured tho coveted position. Three times tlie British rallied for its re- 
capture, but as many times were hurled back. At midnight they retired from the 
Held. 

2 One of his vessels he had built in twenty days, from trees growing on the bank of 
the lake. 



1814] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 193 

prevented Prevost from crossing the Sar'anac River. 
When he found that his ships were lost, he fled precipi- 
tately, leaving- his sick and wounded and large quantities 
of military stores. 

Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. — The British blockade 
extended this year to the North. Commerce was so com- 
pletely destroyed that the lamps in the lighthouses were 
extinguished as being of use only to the British. Several 
towns in Maine were captured. Stonington, Conn., was 
bombarded. Cockburn continued his depredations along 
the Chesapeake. General Ross marched to Washington 
(August 24) and burned the Capitol, the Congressional 
library, and other public buildings and records, with pri- 
vate dwellings and storehouses. He then sailed around 
by sea to attack Baltimore. The army, having disem- 
barked below the city (September 12), moved against it 
by land, while the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry from 
the river. The troops, however, met with a determined 
resistance; and, as the fleet had made no impression on 
the fort,' soon retired to their ships. 

Great excitement was produced by these events. Every 
seaport was fortified ; the militia were organized, and citi- 
zens of all ranks labored with their own hands to throw 
up defenses. Bitter reproaches were cast upon the ad- 
ministration because of its mode of conducting the war. 
Delegates from New England States met at Hartford 
(December 15) in a convention which demanded that the 
defense of each State should be intrusted to the State 
government, asked for various amendments to the national 
Constitution, and hinted at a possible dissolution of the 
Union. The meeting was branded with odium by friends 

1 During tlie boruliardnient of Fort McHenry, Francis 8. Key, an American de- 
tained on board a Britisb vessel, wrote the song The Star-Spangled Banner. 



194 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1814 

of the administration, and "a Hartford Convention Fed- 
eralist" was long a term of reproach. 

Peace, as afterwards appeared, was made even before the 
Hartford convention adjourned. The treaty was signed 
at the city of Ghent, in Europe, December 24. Before 
the news of it reached this country, however, a terrible 
and, as it proved, unnecessary battle had been fought in 
the South. 

Battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1815). — A powerful 
fleet and a force of 12,000 men, under General Pakenham, 
undertook the capture of New Orleans. General Jackson, 
anticipating this attempt, had thrown up intrenchments* 
several miles below the city. The British advanced 
steadily, in solid columns, heedless of the artillery fire 
which swept their ranks, until they came within range of 
the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen, when they wavered. 
Their officers rallied them again and again. General 
Pakenham fell. Neither discipline nor bravery could 
prevail. General Lambert, who succeeded to the com- 
mand, drew off his men in the night, hopelessly defeated, 
after a loss of over 2000 ; while the American loss was but 
eight killed and thirteen wounded. 

Results of the War. — The treaty said nothing about 
impressment; but Great Britain impressed no more 
Americans. The national debt was $127,000,000, but 
within twenty years it was paid from the ordinary rev- 
enue. The United States had secured the respect of 

' Jackson at first mado his intrenchmonts, in part, of cotton bales, but a red-hot 
cannon ball liavlnj; fired the cotton and scattered the burning fra{;;nients among the 
barrels of gunpowder, it was found necessary to remove tho cotton entirely. The 
only defense of the Americans during the battle was a bank of earth live feet high, 
and a ditch in front. The British were tried and disciplined troops, while very few 
of tho Americans had over seen fighting. Besides, the Brifisli were nearly double 
their number. But our men were accustomed to the use of the rifle, and were the best 
marksmen in the world. 



1816] POLITICAL PARTIES 195 

European nations/ since our navy had dared to meet, and 
often successfully, the greatest maritime power in the 
world. The impossibility of any foreign ruler gaining a 
permanent foothold on our territory was shown. The 
fruitless invasion of Canada by the militia, compared with 
the brave defense of their own territory by the same men, 
proved that our strength lay in defensive warfare. 

Extensive manufactories had been established to supply 
the place of the British goods cut off by the blockade. 
This branch of industry continued to thrive after peace, 
though for a time depressed by the quantity of British 
goods thrown on the market. The immediate evils of the 
war were apparent: trade ruined, commerce gone, no specie 
to be seen,^ and a general depression. Yet the wonderful 
resources of the country were shown by the rapidity with 
which it entered upon a new career of prosperity. 

New States. — The war also had another effect: during 
the hard times which followed it, many people left their 
old homes and moved to the West. The population of 
Ohio and Louisiana (p. 244) was nearly doubled. During 
six years (1816-21), a new State was added to the Union 
each year, beginning with Indiana (p. 245). 

Political Parties. — When Madison's term of ofi&ce ex- 
pired, the Federal party had been broken up by its 
opposition to the war. James Monroe, the presidential 

1 The Alfferinee had taken advantage of the war witli Great Britain to renew their 
depredations on American commerce. Decatur (1815) was sent with a squadron to 
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. He obtained the liberation of the American prisoners, 
and full indemnity for alllosses, with pledges for the future. The United States was 
the first nation effectiially to resist the demands of the Barbary pirates lor tribute. 

2 Instead of gold and silver money there were in circulation many bankuotes. The 
national bank chartered by Congress (p. 171) had ceased to exist in I8li,and the banks 
at this time were all State banks; that is, each was chartered by some State. But 
people often refused to accept the notes issued by banks in distant States ; for if a 
?)auk should fail its notes would be worthless. To provide banknotes that would cir- 
culate everywhere freely. Congress now chartered, for twenty years, a second national 
bank at Philadelphia, with power to establish branches at other places. 



196 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION [1817 

candidate of the Republican party, was elected by a large 
majority. Four years later he was reelected, almost 
unanimously. 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817^1825)1 

Monroe's administration is known as " the era of good 
feeling," After the ravages of war the attention of all 
was turned to the development of the internal resources 
of the country and to the building up of its industries. 

Domestic Affairs. — JS'ew States admitted — Mississippi, 
Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri (p. 245).^ 

The Missouri Compromise. — AVhen the admission of 
Missouri as a State was proposed, a violent discussion 
arose as to whether slavery should be allowed there.^ At 

1 James Monroe was horn 1758 ; died 1831. As a soldier under General Washington, 
he distinguished himself in the battles of Brandywine, Genuantown, and Monmouth. 
Afterwards, he studied law, and entered politieal life. Having been sent by Washing- 
ton as minister to France, he showed such marked sympathy with that country as to 
displease the President and his cabinet, who were just concluding a treaty with Great 
Britain, and wished to preserve a strictly neutral policy ; lie was therefore recalled. 
Under Jefferson, who was his warm friend, he was again sent to France (1803), when 
he secured the purchase of Louisiana. lie is said always to have taken particular 
pride in this transaction. Soon aft<'r his inauguration as Pi-esidcnt, he visited all the 
military posts in the North and Fast, with a view^to a thorough acquaintance with the 
capabilities of the country in the event of future hostilities. Monroe was a man more 
prudent than brilliant, who acted with a single eye to the welfare of his countrj-. 
Jefferson said of him : " If hia soul were turned inside out, not a sjiot would be found 
on it." Like that loved friend, he died " pooi\ in money, but rich in honor" ; and like 
Mm also, he passed away on the anniversary of our country's independence. 

2 The flag originally adopted by the Continental Congress had thirteen stare and 
thirteen stripes. After the admission of Vermont nnd Kentucky the number both of 
stars and of stripes was changed to fifteen. No further cliangc was n'lade for many 
years, and in the War of 1812 our armies fought under tlie flag of fifteen stare and 
fifteen stripes, though the number of States was then eighteen. In 1818, however, after 
the admission of several more new States, the number of stripes was i-estored to thir- 
teen, and since then the mimbcr of stars has been the same as the number of States. 

:' The question of slavery was already one of vast importance. At first slaves wer<^ 
owned In the Northern as well as the Southern States. But in the Nortl slave labor 
was unprofitable, and it had gradually died out; while in the South it was successful, 
and hence had steadily increased, ^\^lituey■s cotton gin had given a great impulse to 
cotton raising. Sugar and tobacco, as well as cotton, were cultivated by slaye labor. 



1820] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



197 



this time the Union consisted of twenty-two States, of 
which half — those north of the Ohio River and Mason and 
Dixon's Line — were free, and the other half were slave- 
holding. For many years such a balance in number of 
States, and hence in the United States Senate, was care- 
fully maintained. Missouri was at last admitted (1821) as 
a slave State, under the Compromise of 1820,^ providing 
that slavery should be forever prohibited in all the rest of 
the Louisiana purchase north of the parallel 36° 30', the 
southern boundary of Missouri. At about the same time 
Maine was admitted as a free State. 




LAFAYETTE VISITS THE UNITED STATES. 



Lafayette's Visit to this country (1824-25) as " the na- 
tion's guest" was a joyous event. He traveled through 

I This Missouri Compiomlee was ably supported (but not proposed) by Henry Clay. 



200 MONEOE'S ADMINISTRATION [1824 

each of the twenty-four States, and was everywhere wel- 
comed with delight. His visit to the tomb of Washington 
was full of affectionate remembrance. He was carried 
home in a national vessel, the Branchjtvine, named in 
honor of the battle in which Lafayette first drew his 
sword in behalf of the colonies. 

Foreign Affairs. — Great Britain. — When Louisiana was 
purchased by us it had no definite boundary on the north. 
Now, by treaty with Great Britain (1818), the parallel of 
49° north latitude was agre(?d upon as the boundary, as 
far as the Rocky Mountains (pp. 179, 198). Beyond those 
mountains, all lands claimed by either country were to be 
open temporarily to citizens of both nations. 

Florida. — By a treaty (1819) Spain ceded Florida to 
the United States, and the United States agreed to pay 
$5,000,000 worth of claims held by Americans against 
Spain. The same treaty also fixed our southwestern 
boundary as shown in the map on pages 198, 199. Thus 
Texas, which was in dispute, was given to Spain. 

Monroe Doctrine. — In a message to Congress, President 
Monroe advocated a principle since famous as the Monroe 
Doctrine.^ He declared that any attempt by a European 
nation to gam dominion in America would be considered 
by the United States as an unfriendly act. 

Political Parties. — Practically all the people now be- 
longed to the great Democratic-Republican party, which 
had twice so triumphantly elected Monroe. In the ab- 

1 At this time the Soutli American colonies of Spain had jupt succeeded in establish- 
ing their independence, as the United States had before made itself independent of 
Great Britain. Their existence as nations had been roognized by tlio United States, 
but not by the governments of Europe. Spain asked several other countries in 
Europe to aid her in reconquering her lost colonies, and they seemed likely to do bo. 
But Great Britain was opposed to such action; she proposed that the United States 
join her in warning the European countries to let South America ah)ne. President 
Monroe preferred, however, to make hie protest separately and in general terms. 



1824] POLITICAL PARTIES 201 

sence of any party national convention, however, there 
were on election day (1824) four different candidates for 
President.^ No one obtaining a majority of the electoral 
votes,^ the election went to the House of Representatives, 
where John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was chosen. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Missouri Compromise. — Scliouler's History of the United States, vol. iii. pp. 155-167 
(Northern view); Stephens's War Between the States, vol. ii. pp. 135-164 (Southern view). 
Monroe Doctrine.— Schouler's History of the United States, vol. iii. pp. 278, 281-293. 
liafayette's Visit.— Schouler, vol. iii. pp. 316-324. 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829)3 

Domestic Affairs. — This was a period of great national 
prosperity. The debt was diminishing at the rate of over 
$6,000,000 a year. A protective tariff, known as the 
"American System," was greatly increased (1828). It 

' Beginning with this division of the party among ditTerent leaders, the people soon 
came to ho grouped under two different party names. The National Republicans — 
later known as Whigs — acknowledged the leadership of J. Q. Adams and Henry Clay; 
with them were joined many who had formerly heen Federalists. The main body of 
Republicans — henceforth known as Democrats — were led by Andi-ew Jackson, WiUiam 
H. Crawford, and John C. Calhoun (kal boon). The Whigs favored a 2^>'otectivc tariff, 
for the purpose of encouraging home manufactures, and a general system of intei'nal 
improvements by the federal government, such as improving the navigation of rivers, 
the building of canals and roads, and the dredging of harbors. Most of the Democrats, 
as strict constructionists, opposed these measures. 

For a time after 1835 the Democrats were also called " Locofocos," because, at a 
meeting in Tammany Hall, Now York (October 29), the lights, having been put out, 
were relighted with locofoco matches, which several persons, expecting such an event, 
had carried in their pockets. Matches had been invented only a short time before; 
hence their use in this case attracted much attention. 

2 Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. 

3 John Quincy Adams was born iu Massachusetts, 1767 ; died 1848. He was a man 
of learning, blameless reputation, and unquestioned patriotism, yet as President he 
was hardly more successful than his father. This was doubtless owing greatly to 
the fierce opposition which assailed him from the friends of disappointed candidates, 
who at once combined to weaken his measures and prevent his reelection. Their 
candidate was Andrew Jackson, a man whose dashing boldness, energy, and decision 
attracted the common people and hid the more quiet virtues of Adams. To add to 
Ms perplexities, a majority of the House and nearly one half of the Senate favored 



202 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1825 




TUK ERIE CANAL. 



was popular in the East, but distasteful to the South.' 
During this term the Erie Canal was opened (1825), and 
the first railroad in the United States was completed 

(1826). The Erie 
Canal was built by 
the State of New 
York, under the 
leadership of Gov- 
ernor De Witt 
Clinton. It greatly- 
lessened the cost 
of transporting 
goods to and from 
the West, and 
helped to make 
New York city the 
largest and most prosperous seaport on the Atlantic coast. 
The buildingof canalsand railroads marks a great change 
in our industrial history. At this time, and for many 
years thereafter, tlio usual moans of travel on land was 
by stagecoach, and freight was carried mostly by water. 
The cost of carrying freight long distances on land, over 
ordinary roads, was often more than the freight was worth. 

the .Taokfion party, the Vice President, John C. Calhoun, bein^ most aetive In the op- 
position. To stem such a tide was a hopeless effort. Two years after the expiration 
of his term as President, Adams was returned to Congress, where he remained until 
his death, over sixteen years afterwards. Ten years of i)ul)lie service were tluis ren- 
dered after ho had passed his "threescore years and ten," and so great was his ability 
in debate at this cxtrenjo ape, that he was called "the old man eloquent." Lik(! his 
fathei, he was a wonderful worker, and his mind was a storehouse of facts. Ho lived 
economically, .and left a large estate. Ho was the congressional advocate of anti- 
slavery principles, and a bitter ojjponcnt of secret societies. His fame increased 
with Ids iige, and he died a trusted and revered champion of popular rights. He was 
seized with apoplexy while occupying his eeat in Congreee, after which he lingered two 
days in partial unconsciousness. 

1 The Poutliern States, devoted to agricultural pursuits, desired to have foreign 
goods brought to them as cheaply as possible ; while the Eastern Btates, engaged in 
manufactures, wished to have foreign eomiictitiou shut oflf by heavy duties. 



1828] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



203 



Canals and railroads, as they steadily increased, not only 
made farming profitable in vast areas remote from navi- 
gable waters, but also gave a great impetus to manufac- 
tures for the growing home markets. 

Political Parties. — Adams was a candidate for reelection, 
but Andrew Jackson — the hero of New Orleans, and 




STAGECOACH. 



the Democratic nominee — was chosen. The principle' 
of a protective tariff was thus rejected by the people. 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837)1 

President Jackson began his administration with an 
inflexible honesty that delighted all, and with a sturdiness 
of purpose that amazed both friends and foes. In the 

1 Andrew Jackson was born 17G7 ; died 1845. He was of Scotch-Irish descent. His 
father died before Andrew was born, leaving his mother very poor. As a boy Andrew 
was brave and impetuous, passionately fond of athletic sports, but not at all devoted 
to books. His life was crowded with excitement and adventure. At thirtceu, being 
captured by the British, he was ordered to clean the commander's boots. Showing 
the true American spirit in his refusal, he was sent to prison with a wound on head 
and arm. Here he contracted the smallpox, which kept him ill several months. His 




204 



1832] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



206 



government offices he surrounded himself at once with 
his political friends, thus establishing the principle of 
" rotation in office." ^ 

Domestic Affairs. — Nullification (1832). — South Caro- 
lina passed a Nullification 
ordinance declaring the 
tariff law "null and void," 
and that the State would 
secede from the Union if 
force should be employed 
to collect any revenue at 
Charleston. President 

Jackson acted with his 
accustomed promptness. 
He issued a proclamation 
announcing his determi- 
nation to execute the 
laws, and ordered troops, 
under General Scott, to 
proceed to Charleston.^ john c. calhodn. 




mother effected his exchange, but soon afterwards she died of ship fever while caring 
for the imprisoned Americans at Charleston. Left destitute, young Jackson tried 
various employments, but tinally settled down to the law, removed to Tennessee, and 
in 1796 was elected to Congress. His imperious temper and inflexible will supplied 
hiui with frequent quarrels. He first distinguished himself as a military officer in the 
war against the Creek Indians. His dashing successes in the War of 1812 completed his 
reputation and ultimately won him the presidency. His nomination was at first 
received in many States with ridicule, as, whatever might be his military prowess, 
neither his temi)er nor his ability recommended him as a statesman. His reelection, 
however, proved his popular success as President. His chief intellectual gifts were 
energy and intuitive judgment. He was thoroughly honest, intensely warm-hearted, 
and had an instinctive horror of debt. His moral courage was as great as his physical, 
and his patriotism was undoubted. He died at the " Hermitage," his home near Nash- 
ville, Tennessee. 

' "During the first year of his administration there were nearly seven hundred 
removals from office, not including subordinate clerks. During the forty years pre- 
ceding there had been but seventy-four." 

2 John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne were the prominent advocates of the 
doctrine of " State rights," declaring that a State could set aside an act of Congress 



206 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1833 

In the meantime Henry Clay's celebrated Compromise Bill 
was adopted by the Senate. This measure, offering a 
gradual reduction of the tariff, was accepted by both 
sides, and quiet was restored.' 

Bank of the United States. — During his first term Jack- 
son vetoed a bill renewing the charter of the United States 
Bank. After his reelection"" by an overwhelming ma- 
joi-ity, considering his policy sustained by the people, he 
ordered (1833) the public money to be removed from its 
vaults. Jackson's measure excited violent clamor, but he 
was sustained by the Democratic majority in the House 
of Representatives. The money was gradually withdrawn 
from the United States Bank to pay the expenses of the 
government, and no new deposits were made there. 

Speculation. — When the public money, which was with- 
held from the Bank of the United States, was deposited 
in the local State banks, it became easy to borrow money, 

which it docmcd unronstitiitional. During this Rtrujrplc oocnrrcd the memorable 
(lebato in tlie Senate lictween Webster and Hayne, in which Webster, ojjiiosinff soces- 
Kion, pronounced tliose words familiar to every 8chool))oy, " Liberty and Union, now 
and forever, one and inseparable." Calhoun's public life extended over forty years. 
Ho was one of the most celebrated statesuHjn of his time. As a speaker he was noted 
for forcible loKic, clear demonstration, and earnest manner. IIo rejected ornament, 
and rarely used illustration. Webster, his political antagonist, said of him : " lie had 
the indisputable basis of all high character— unspotted integrity and honor unim- 
peached. Nothing groveling, low, or meanly selfish came near his head or his heart." 

' Alexander II. 8tci)hens says : "To do this, Clay hiul to break from his old political 
friends, while ho was offering up the darling system of his heart on the altar of his 
country. No (mo can deny that ho was a p.itriot, every inch of him. When ho was 
Importuned not to take the course ho did, and assured that it would lessen his chances 
for the presidency, ho nobly replied, 'I would rather be right than be President' — 
a sentiment worthy to be the motto of every yonng patriot in our land." 

'i The election of 1832 is notable as being the first in which candidates for Presi- 
dent and Vice President were nominated by national conventions of the respective 
parties. Before this time nominations had l)een nuide sometimes by State legislatures, 
sometimes by a "congressional caucus"— composed of the crmgressmen belonging to 
the party. The first nation.al convention was held by the Antimasonic party, which 
cut a prominent figure in New York and the ntiighboriug States for several years. It 
opposed the election of any freemason to public office, claiming that masons considered 
duty to the order superior to duty to their country. 



1833] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 207 

for the banks now issued vast amounts of their own bank- 
notes. Speculation extended to every branch of trade, 
but especially to Western lands. New cities were laid out 
in the wilderness. Fabulous prices were charged for 
building lots which existed only on paper. Scarcely a 
man could be found who had not his pet project for 
realizing a fortune. The bitter fruits of these hothouse 
schemes were gathered in Van Buren's time. 

Indian Troubles. — Owing to the pressure of white set- 
tlers in the middle West, one Indian tribe after another 
had been persuaded or compelled to sell its lauds and 
move west of the Mississippi. This policy of dealing 
with all the Indians east of the river was advised by Pres- 
ident Monroe, and was followed hj Adams and Jackson. 
Most of them were removed peaceably, or with only threats 
of war ; but in two cases the removal caused bloodshed. 
(1) The Black Hawk War broke out in the region near 
the. Mississippi, in northern Illinois and what is now Wis- 
consin (1832). The Sacs and Foxes had some time before 
sold their lands to the United States, but when the settlers 
came to take possession, the Indians refused to leave. 
After some skirmishes they were driven off, and their 
leader, the famous Black Hawk, was captured. (2) The 
Florida War (1835) with the Sem'inoles grew out of an 
attempt to remove them to their new homes west of the 
Mississippi, in accordance with a treaty.' After several 
battles the Indians retreated to the Everglades of southern 

' Osceo'la, the rbief of the Seminoles, was so defiant that General Thompson, the 
government agent, put hira in irons. Dissemljling liis wratli, Osceola consented to 
the treaty. But no sooner was he released than, burning with indignation, he plotted 
a general massaci-c of the whites. General Thompson was shot aTid scali)ed while 
Bitting at dinner, under the very guns of Fort King. The same day Major Dade, with 
over 100 men, was waylaid near the Wii'hoo Swamp. All but four were killed, and 
these subsequently died of their wounds. Osce(da, in October, 1837, visited the camp 
of General Jessup under a flag of truce. He was there seized >nd sent to Fort 
Moultrie, where he died the following year. 



208 VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION [1837 

Florida, where they hoped to find a safe retreat in the 
tangled swamps. They were, however, pursued into their 
hiding places by Colonel Taylor, and beaten in a hard- 
fought battle (Okeeho'bee, December 25, 1837), but were 
not fully subdued until 1842. 

New States. — Two States were admitted in this admin- 
istration — Arkansas and Michigan (pp. 245, 246). 

Foreign Affairs. — France. — The French govei-nment had 
promised to j)ay $5,000,000 for damages to our commerce 
during Napoleon's wars. This agreement not being kept, 
Jackson urged Congress to make reprisals on French 
ships. The mediation of G-reat Britain secured the pay- 
ment of the debt by France and thus averted the threat- 
ened war. 

Political Parties. — The Democratic candidate, Martin 
Van Bu'ren, was chosen President.^ The people thus 
supported the policy of Jackson — no United States Bank 
and no protective taritf. General Harrison was the Whig 
candidate. 

VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841)2 

Domestic Affairs. — Crisis o/1837. — The financial storm 
which had been gathering through the preceding ad- 

' No candidate for Vice President received a majority of the electoral votes, so the 
election went to the Senate. Colonel R. M. .Johnson was chosen. 

'^ Martin Van Buren was born 1782; died 18G2 He early took an interest in politics, 
and in I8I8 started a new organization of the Democratic party of New York, his 
nati%'e State, which had the power for over twenty years. In 1831 ho was appointed 
minister to Great Britain, whither he went in September; bnt when the nomination 
came before the Senate in Decemlier, it was rejected, on the gronnd that he had sided 
with Great Britain against the United States on certain matters, and had carried 
party contests and their results into foreign negotiations. His party regarded this as 
extreme political persecution, and the next year electtnl him to the vice-presidency. 
He thus became the head of the Seiiate wliieh a few months before had condemned him, 
and where he now performed his duties with "dignity, courtesy, and impartiality." 
As President, Van Buren was the subject of much partisan censure. The country 



1837] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 209 

ministration now burst with terrible fury. The banks 
contracted their circulation and called in their loans.^ 
Business men could not pay their debts. Failures were 
everyday occurrences, and the losses in New York city 
alone, during March and April, exceeded $100,000,000. 
Property of all kinds declined in value. Eight of the 
States failed, wholly or in part, to meet their financial 
obligations. Even the United States government could 
not pay its debts when due. Consternation seized upon all 
classes. Confidence was destroyed and trade stood still. 

The Sdhtreasmy Bill. — Van Buren's favorite plan was 
to keep the public money in the United States treasury at 
Washington, and in subtreasuries at a few other cities. 
The Subtreasury Bill, however, was enacted only at the 
close of his term. It was repealed during Tyler's admin- 
istration, but reenacted under Polk, and is the system in 
force at the joresent time. 

Foreign Affairs. — The Canadian ^^ Patriot TF«r" (1837- 
1838). — A Canadian rebellion against Q-reat Britain, at 
this time, stirred the sympathies of the American people. 
Meetings were held, volunteers offered, and arms con- 
tributed. The President issued a proclamation refusing 

was passing through a peculiar crisis, and his was a difficult position to fill with satis- 
faction to all. That he pleased his own party is proved from the fact of his renomi- 
nation in 18-tO against Harrison. In 1848 he became the presidential candidate of the 
Free-soil party, a new party advocating antislavery principles. After this ho retired 
to his estate in Kinderhoolc, N. Y., where he died. 

1 The direct causes of this were as follows: (1) Jackson issued the "specie circu- 
lar" near the close of his last term, directing tliat payments for public lands should 
be made In specie (gold and silver). The specie was soon gathered into the United 
States treasury. (2) Congress ordered that the surplus public money, amounting to 
about $28,000,000, should be withdrawn from the local banks and distributed among 
the States. The banks conld not meet the demand. (3) During the season of hi^h 
prices and speculation, when fortunes were easily made, there had been heavy Impor- 
tations of European goods, which had to be paid for in gold and silver. Thus the 
country was drained of its specie. (4) A terrible fire in the city of New York on the 
night of December 16, 1835, burned 600 valaable stores and property to the amount of 
120,000,000. 

B. HIST. U. S. — 13 



210 HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION [1841 

the protection of the United States government to any 
who should aid the Canadians, and sent General Scott to 
the frontier to preserve the peace/ 

Political Parties. — The financial difficulties caused a 
change in political feeling and for a time weakened the 
confidence of the people in the wisdom of the Democratic 
policy. Van Buren was nominated by the Democrats for 
a second term ; but General Harrison, the hero of Tippe- 
canoe, the Whig nominee, was chosen President by an 
immense majority. 

COLLATERAL READING 

The Crisis of 1837. — Sclioulor's Bistoi-y of the United States, vol. iv. pp. 267-2C4, 
276-281. 

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845)2 

General Harrison had scarcely entered upon the duties 
of his office, and selected his cabinet, when he died. John 

' A body of Anicricaiis, having taken possession of Navy Island, in Niagara River, 
had hired a steamer called the Caroline to convey provisions and war materials for 
an expedition to Canada. On the night of December '2:1, 1837, a party of British troopu 
attempted to seize this v(>,ssel. A desperate light ensued; but the ship wa.s at laat; 
set on Are and left to drift over Niagara Falls. This event caused great excitenient all 
the time. 

2 William Henry Harrison wa.s born 1773; died 1841. He distinguished liiniseh' 
during the War of 1812, esjiecially in the battle of the Thames. His military reputa- 
tion made him available as a presidential candidate. His eliaract<'r was unimpeach- 
able, and the chief slur cast upon him by his opponents was that he had lived in a " log 
cabin," with nothing to drink but "hard cider." His friends turned this to good 
account. The campaign was noted for immense mass meetings, long processions,, 
Bong-singiug, and great entliusiasm. "Hard cider" became a party watchword, and 
the " log cabin " a regular feature in the popular parades. Harrison was elected l)y a 
large miijority, .and great hopes were entertained of his administration. Though ad- 
vanced in years, he gave promise of (endurance. But "ho was beset by office-seekers; 
he was anxious to gi-atify the numerous friends and supporters who flocked about 
him ; ho gave himself incessantly to i)ublic busiiK^as ; and at the close of the month he 
■was on a sick bed." The illness soon proved to be fatal. 

John Tyler was born 1790; died 18fi2. He was in early life a great admirer of 
Henry Clay, and is said to have wept with sorrow when the Whigs in convention 
r^ected his favorite candidate for the presidency and selected Uarrison. He was 



1841] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 211 

Tyler, tlie Vice President, in accordance with the Consti- 
tution of the United States, became President. This was 
the first case of the kind in our history. Tyler was elected 
as a Whig, but did not carry out the favorite measures of 
his party. 

Domestic Affairs. — United States Bank. — Under the 
lead of Clay, the Whig majority in Congress passed a 
charter for a " Bank of the United States." This Tyler 
vetoed. A second bill, for a similar purpose, met the 
same fate. These successive vetoes caused great anger 
and excitement among the Whigs. 

Borfs Behellion, a local disturbance in Rhode Island, 
grew out of efforts to secure a more liberal constitution in 
that State. The charter granted by Charles II. was still 
in force. It limited the right of suffrage to those holding 
a certain amount of property, and fixed very unequaUy 
the number of deputies in the Assembly from the different 
towns. ^ In 1841 a new State constitution was adopted, 
the vote being taken in mass conventions, and not by the 
legal voters according to the charter. Under this consti- 
tution T. W. Dorr was elected governor. The old gov- 
ernment still went on, treating his election as illegal. He 
attempted to seize the State arsenal, but, finding it held 
by the militia, gave up the attempt. Dorr was afterwards 
arrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life, but was finally pardoned. Meanwhile, a 

nominated Vice President by a unanimous vote, and was a favorite with his party. 
In the popular refrain "Tippecanoe and Tyler too " the people sang praises to him as 
heartily as to Hari-isou himself. Tyler's administration was fuU of quarrel. Clay was 
determined to reduce the President to the ranks ; Tyler answered with vetoes. The 
Whigs denounced him as a renegade, to which he replied, with truth, that he had never 
indorsed their measures, either before or during the presidential canvass. In 1861 he 
became the presiding ofHcer of the peace convention in Washington. All efforts at 
reconciliation proving futile, he renounced his allegiance to the United States, and 
followed the Confederate fortunes. He died in Bichmond, where he was in attendance 
as a member of the Confederate Congress. 



212 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1843 



liberal constitution, which had been legally adopted, went 
into operation (1843). 

New York Anti-Bent Difficulties (1844). — The tenants on 
some of the old " patroon estates " in New York refused 
to pay the rent. It was very light,' but was considered 
illegal. The anti-renters, as they were called, assumed 
the disguise of Indians, tarred and feathered those teiKints 
who i->aid their rents, and even killed officers who servi^d 
warrants upon them. The disturbances were suppressed 

only by a military force (1846). 
TJie Mar/netlc Telefjraph 
was invented by Samuel F. 
B. Morse. The first line was 
built between Baltimore and 
Washington (1844), with 
$30,000 appropriated by Con- 
gress. On its completion, 
the first official message sent 
was, "What hath God 
wrought!" The introduction 
of the telegraph was the great- 
est event of this adminis- 
tration. 

The Mormons. — A religious 
sect called Mormons had 
settled at Nauvoo', 111. (1840). Here they built a city of 
several thousand inhabitants, and laid the foundation of a 
costly temple. Having incurred the enmity of the people 
about them, their leader, Joseph Smith, was killed by a 
mob (1844).- The next year the State government re- 

1 The rent consisted of only "a few bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a 
day's work with horses and wagon, per year." 

-' Joseph .sinitli, while living at Palmyra, N. Y., claimed to have had a revelation 
by which he was directed to a spot where ho found buried a series of golden plates 




MORSE AND HIS TELEGRAPH. 



1846] 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



213 



pealed the charter of the city, which was then partly 
abandoned. Finally, the city was bombarded for three 
days, when the remaining inhabitants also agreed to leave. 
The Mormons went to Iowa (1846), and then to Utah. 

New State admitted — Flori- 
da (p. 246). 

Foreign Affairs. — TJie North- 
east Boimdary^ between Maine 
and New Brnnswick, had never 
been settled. The people of 
that region at one time threat- 
ened to take up arms to sup- 
port their I'espective claims, 
and there was great peril of a 
war with Great Britain. At 
last the difficulty was adjusted 
V)y what is known as the Ash'- 
burton treaty (1842), which was 
negotiated between the United 
States and Great Britain, Dan- 
iel Webster and Lord Ash bur- 
ton acting as commissioners. the north east BotiNDAKY. 

covered "With mecriptions, ■whicli he translated by means of two transparent stones 
found with them. The result was the Book of Mormon, said to be the history of a race 
favored by God which occupied this continent at a remote period of antiquity. The 
Mormons accept the Holy Bible as received by all Christian people, but believe the 
Book of Mormon to be an additional revelation, and also that their chief or prophet 
receives direct inspiration from (Jod. Smith gained only a few converts at first. In 
1831 they removed to Ohio, and a few years later to western Missouri. Here they in- 
creased rapidly ill numbers and wealth, but they were soon driven out of the Btate, 
and went to Illinois. From about 1850, or earliei", until 1890 they practiced plural 
marriage, or polygamy, claiming that the Scriptures justify it. After the death of 
Smith and their expulsion from Kauvoo, a company under the leadership of Brigham 
Young crossed the Eocky Mountains, and settled near Great Salt Lake, in Utah. They 
•were followed by others of their sect, and, after great sufferings, succeeded in estab- 
lishing a prosperous colony. They founded Salt Lake City, where tliey erected a large 
temple for worsliip. Their prophet Brigham Young, who died August 19, 1877, is 
remembered by his followers with the greatest reverence. 




214 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 



L1S44 



Armexatlon of Texas. — The Texans, under General Sam 
Houston (hu'ston), having won then- independence from 
Mexico (p. 246), applied (1844) for admission to the Union. 
Their petition was at first rejected by Congress,* but, 

being indorsed by the 
people in the fall elec- 
tions, was granted the 
day before the close of 
Tyler's administration. 
Political Parties. — 
The question of the an- 
nexation of Texas went 
before the people for 
their decision. The 
Whigs, who opposed its 
admission, nominated 
Henry Clay - for Presi- 
dent. The Democrats, 
who favored its admis- 
sion, named James K. 
Polk, who, after a close 
"^^^^^^ contest, was elected. 

• There were two reasons wliy this tncasuro was warmly discusRod. (1) Mexico 
claimed Texas, although that country had maintained its indcpcndent'C fornijie years, 
and had been recognized by several European nations, as well as by tlie United States. 
Besides, Texas ('laimed to the Rio Grande (le'o gi-iin'dfi), while Mexico insisted upon the 
Nueces (nwii sCs) River as the lionndary line between Texas and Mexico. The section 
of country betwc-en these rivers was therefore disputed territory, and th<5 anuexatiou 
of Texas would bring on a war with Mexico. (2) The Texans held slaves. Cousequeutly, 
while the South urged the admission of Texas, the North as strongly opposed it. 

'•* Henry Clay was a man whom the nation loved but signally failed to honor. Yet 
his fame and reputation renjain far above any distinction which mere office can give, 
and unite with them an aflFectiou which stands the test of time. Respected by 
his opponents, he was almost idolized by his friends. In this he somewhat resembled 
Jefferson, but, unlike him, he had not in his early years the advantages of a liberal 
education. His father, a Baptist minister of very limited means, died when Henry 
was Ave years old, and at fifteen he was left to support himself. Meantime, he had 
received what little tuition he had, in a log-cabin schoolhouse, from very indifferent 
teauhers. With u rare tact for making friends, ready talent waiting to be instructed. 




SCALE OF MTLE8 

155 200 36o S3o 



1846] 



WAR WITH MEXICO 



215 



JAMES K. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849)1 

WAR WITH MEXICO (i 846-1 847) 

Taylor's Army. — Campaign on the Bio Grande. — General 
Zachary Taylor, having been ordered with his troops into 
the disputed territory, met and defeated (May 8, 1846) 
a Mexican army at Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to). The next 
day he met the same army at Resaca de la Palma (ra- 
sah'kah da lah pahl'mah), and drove it across the Rio 

and a strong determination seeking opportunities, he soon began to show the dawn- 
lugs of the power wliich afterwards distinguished him. He said : " I owe my success in 
life to a single fact, namely, tbat at an early age I commenced, and continued for some 
years, the practice of daily reading and 
spcatiug the contents of some histori- 
cal or scientiflchook. These offhand ef- 
forts were sometimes made in a corn- 
field; at others, in the forest; and not 
nnfrequently in some distant bam, 
with the horse and ox for my only au- 
ditors. It is to this that I am indebted 
for the impulses that have shaped and 
molded my entire destiny." Rising 
rapidly by the force of his genius, lie 
soon made himself felt in his State 
and in the nation. He was peculiarly 
winning in his manners. An eminent 
and stern political antagonist once re- 
fused an introduction to him expressly 
on the ground of a determination not 
to be magnetized by personal contact, 
as he " had known other good haters" 
of Clay to be. United with this suavity 
was a wonderful will and an inflexible 
honor. His political adversary but per- 
sonal admirer, John C. Breckinridge, 
in an oration pronounced at his death, 
uttered these words: "If I were to 

write his epitaph, I would inscribe as the highest eulogy on the stone which shall mark 
his resting place : ' Here lies a man who was in the public service for fifty years, and 
never attempted to deceive his countrymen.' " 

1 James K. Polk was born 1795 ; died 1849. He was a conspicuous opposer of the 
administration of John Qulncy Adams, and a warm supporter of Jackson. In 1839, 
having served fourteen years in Congress, he declined a reelection, and was chosen 
governor of Tennessee. His presidential nomination, in connection with that of 




HENRY CLAT. 



216 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION [1846 

Grande in utter rout. When news of these encounters 
reached Washington, Congress declared war. 

Capture oj Monterey (September 24). — General Taylor, 
with about GOOO men, advanced w^ow Monterey (mon- 

ta ra). This city 




SCALE or 



was strongly forti- 
fied, and its streets 
were barricaded 
and defended by a 
garrison of 10,000 
men. To avoid the 
deadly fire from the 
windows, roofs, and 
barricades, the as- 
saulting troops en- 
tered the build- 
ings and dug their 
way through the 
stone walls from 
house to house, or 
passed from roof to roof. They came at last within one 
square of the Grand Plaza, when the city was surrendered. 
The garrison was allowed to march out with the honors 
of war. 

Battle o/Buena Vista (February 23, 1847). — Santa Anna, 
the Mexican general, learning that the flower of Taylor's 
command had been withdrawn to aid General Scott (p. 218), 

George M. Dallas of Peunsylvauiii as Vico President, had the ofTott of uniting the 
Democratic party, wliich had been disturbed by dissensions between the friends and 
opponents of Martin Van IJnrou. The Mexican war, which was strongly opposed in 
many States, the enactment of a tariflf based on a revenue principle instead of a pro- 
tective one, and the agitation caused by the Wilmot Proviso (p. 221), conspired to 
affect his popularity before the end of liis term. lie had liowever, previously jdedged 
himself not to be a candidate for reelection. lie died about three uiontlis after his 
retiromeut from office. 



GENERAL TAYLOR'S CAMl'AIGN. 



1847] WAK WITH MEXICO 217 

determined to crush the remainder. The little American 
army took i)ost near Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah), on a 
mountain pass and a plateau with hills on one side and 
ravines on the other/ Here it was attacked by Santa 
Anna with 20,000 of the best troops of Mexico. The battle 
lasted from early morning till dark. Again and again 
the Mexicans seemed on the point of overwhelming the 
Americans by force of numbers; but Taylor skillfully 
sent reenforcements where they were needed. The 
American artillery wrought such havoc in the crowded 
masses of the enemy that they finally broke and fled in 
disorder. 

General Taylor's work was now done. His army was 
intended only to hold the country already gained, while 
General Scott penetrated to the capital from Vera Cruz 
(va'rah kroos). 

Kearny's Army. — General Stephen W. Kearny (kar'ny) 
was directed to take the Mexican provinces of New Mex- 
ico and California. Starting from Fort Leavenworth 
(June, 1846), after a journey of 1000 miles he reached 
Santa Fe (map, p. 218). Unfurling there the United States 
flag, he continued his march toward California.^ On his 
way, however, he learned from Kit Carson, the noted 

' Several anecdotes are told of General Taylor in connection wfth this battle. The 
day before the principal attack, the Mexicans fired heavily on our line. A Mexican 
officer, couiini? with a message from Santa Anna, found Taylor sitting on his white 
horse, with one leg over the pommel of his saddle. The officer asked him what he was 
waiting for. He answered: "For Santa Anna to suri-ender." After the officer's 
return a battery opened on Taylor's position, but he remained coolly surveying the 
enemy with his spyglass. Some one suggesting that " Whitey" was too conspicuous 
a horse for the battle, he replied that the " old fellow had missed the fun at Monterey, 
and he should have his share this time." 

'■^ Colonel Doniphan, with 1000 men, the main body of General Kearny's command, 
marched over 1000 miles through a hostile country, from Santa F^ to Saltillo, having 
on the way fought two battles and conquered the province and city of Chihuahua 
(che waw'waw). At the end of their term of service h^ led his men back to New 
Orleans and discharged them. They had been enlisted, marched 5000 miles, and dis- 
banded, all in a year. 



218 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1846 



hunter, that he was late. The winter before, Captain 
John C. Fremont, with a company of sixty men, had been 
engaged in surveying a new route to Oregon. Hearing 
that the Mexican commandant intended to expel the 
American settlers, he went to their rescue, although he 
was not aware that war had broken out between the United 




GENEKAL KEAKNY'S CAMPAICJN. 



States and Mexico. With greatly inferior numbers he 
was victor over the Mexicans in every conflict. By the 
'help of Commodores Sloat and Stockton, and also of Gen- 
eral Kearny, who came in time to aid in the last battle, 
the entire country was conquered. 

Scott's Army. — Capture of Vera Cruz (March 29, 
1847).— General Winfield Scott landed an army 12,000 
strong without opposition, and forthwith drew his siege 
lines among the shifting sand hills and chaparral thickets 



184?] WAR WITH MEXICO 219 

about Vera Cruz. After a fierce bombardment of four 
days the city was surrendered. 

March to Mexico. — In about a week, the army took up 
its march for the capital. At the mountain pass of Cer'ro 
Gor'do the enemy was strongly fortified. Our men cut a 
road around the base of the mountain through the forest, 
and dragged cannon up a precipice to the rear of the 
position by ropes. Thence a plunging fire was opened 
simultaneously with an assault in front, and the Mexicans 
fled in haste (April 18). 

The city of Puebla (pweb'lah), next to Mexico in im- 
portance, surrendered without resistance. Here Scott 
waited nearly three months for reenforcements. 




GENERAL SCOTT'S CAMPAIGN. 



Battles before Mexico. — With 11,000 men the march was 
resumed (August 7), and in three days the army reached 
the crest of the mountains overlooking the magnificent 
valley of Mexico. In the valley was the city, surrounded 
by fertile plains and snow-capped mountains. But the 
way thither was guarded by 30,000 men and strong fortifi- 
cations. Turning to the south to avoid the strongest 
points, by a route considered impassable, the army came 
before the intrenched camp of Contrekas (kon tra'ras), 
within fourteen miles of Mexico (August 19). The next 
day this camp was taken, the height of Churubusco (choo- 



220 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1847 




CASTLE OF CHAPULTEl'IiC. 



The attack was irresistible. 



roo boo'sko) was stormed, numerous batteries were cap- 
tured, and the defenses laid bare to the causeways leading 

to the very gates of the 
city. An armistice and 
fruitless negotiations 
for peace delayed the 
advance until General 
Scott found that the 
Mexicans were only im- 
proving the time in 
strengthening their 
works. Once more (Sep- 
tember 8) our army 
moved to the assault. 
The formidable outworks 
were taken one by one. At last the castle of Chapultepec 
(chah pool ta pek'), 
on a high rock 
commanding the 
city, was stormed. 
The next day (Sep- 
tember 14) the army 
entered the city, 
and the Stars and 
Stripes waved in 
triumph over the 
Mexican palace. 

Peace.— The fall 
of the capital virtu- 
ally closed the war. 
By the treaty of February 2, 1848, the United States gained 
the vast territory reaching south to the Gila (he'lah) and 
west to the Pacific, and paid Mexico $15,000,000. 




SOLE OF MILEB 



THE MEXICAN CESSION OK 1848. 



1846] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 221 

Northwest Boundary. — The northeast boundary dis- 
pute (p. 213) had scarcely been settled, when the Oregon 
question, involving the northwest boundary, came into 
great prominence. This great territory was held under 
joint occupation with the British ; but when our people 
began to settle it rapidly, the United States was inclined 
to claim the whole of it up to 54° 40'. The French claim 
to the Oregon country had been included in the Louisiana 
purchase, and the Spanish claim was ended by the treaty 
of 1819. The dispute with Great Britain was settled by a 
compromise fixing the boundary line at 49° (1846). See 
maps on pages 198 and 226. 

Domestic Affairs. — The Wilmot Proviso. — The new terri- 
tory won from Mexico became at once a bone of conten- 
tion. David Wilmot had offered in Congress (August, 
1846) an amendment to an appropriation bill, forbidding 
slavery in any of the territory that might be acquired. 
This measure, though lost, excited violent debate, and be- 
came the great feature of the fall election. 

Discovery of Gold in California. — A workman in digging 
a millrace on an eastern branch of the Sacramento River 
(January, 1848) discovered shining particles of gold. A 
further search proved that the soil for miles around con- 
tained the precious metal. The news flew in every direc- 
tion. Emigration began from all parts of America, and 
even from Europe and Asia. In eighteen months 100,000 
persons went from the United States to this El Dora'do, 
where a fortune was to be picked up in a few days. Some 
went by sea, but others made their way across the prairies 
and mountains, amid privations that strewed the route 
with skeletons. A city of shanties sprang up at the entrance 
to San Francisco Bay. Ships in this harbor were deserted 
by their crews, who ran to the mines, sometimes, it is said, 



222 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION [1848 

headed by their officers. Soon streets were laid out, houses 
erected, and from this Babel grew up, as if by magic, a 
beautiful city. For a time lawlessness reigned supreme ; 

but, driven by tlio necessity of ovent;^, the more res^pectable 

- - ^ 




MIGRATING TO CALIFORNIA. 



citizens took the law into their own hands, organized "vig- 
ilance committees," and administered a rude but promjijt 
justice which presently restored order. 

New States. — The admission of Texas, Iowa, and Wis- 
consin (p. 246) made the total number of States thirty, 
of which half wore free and half slave. 

Political Parties. — Three parties now sought the suf- 
frages of the people. The Whigs nominated General Tay- 
lor for President; the Democrats, Lewis Cass; and the 
Free-soilers, who were opposed to the extension of slavery, 
Martin Van Buren. The personal popularity of General 
Taylor, on account of his many sterling qualities and his 
brilliant victories in the Mexican war, made him the 
favorite candidate, and he was elected. 



1850] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 223 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853)1 

General Taylor, like General Harrison, died soon after 
his elevation to the presidency. Millard Fillmore, Vice 
President, succeeded him. 

Domestic Affairs.— Slavery questions were the great po- 
litical topic of this administration. When California applied 
for admission to the Union as a free State, all these sub- 
jects were brought to a focus. A hot debate ensued, and 
for a while it seemed as if the Union would be rent asun- 
der. At this terrible crisis, Henry Clay, the " Great 
Pacificator," came forward, and, with his wonderful elo- 
quence, urged the necessity of mutual compromise and for- 
bearance. Daniel Webster ^ warmly seconded this effort 
at conciliation. 

iZachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784. Soon after hia birtli liis parents 
removed to Kentucky. His means of education were extremely scanty, and until he 
was twenty-four years of age lie worked on his father's plantation. Madison, who 
was a relative and at that time Secretary of State, then secured for him an appoint- 
ment in the army as lieutenant. From this he rose by regular and rapid degrees to 
a major-generalship. Palo Alto, Kesaca de la Palma, Monterey, and Buena Vista won 
him great applause. He was the hero of a successful war, and the soldiers admiringly 
called him "Old Rough and Eeady." Many Whig leaders violently opposed his nomi- 
nation. Daniel Webster called him " an ignorant frontier colonel." The fact that he 
was a slaveholder was warmly urged against him. He Imew nothing of civil affairs, 
and had taken so little interest in politics that he had not voted in forty years. His 
nomination caused a secession from the Whigs, which, combined with a similar Demo- 
cratic secession, resulted in the formation of the Free-soil party. As President, he 
maintained his popularity, and was one of the most esteemed who have tilled that 
ofiflce. He died July 9, 1850, at the presidential mansion, after an illness of five days. 

Millard Fillmore was born in Cayuga County, N. Y., 1800; died at Buffalo, 1874. He 
learned the fuller's trade, taught school, practiced law, served as assemblyman for 
three terms and as congressman for four terms, ran unsuccessfully for governor, and 
was comptroller of the State of New York when he was nominated for the vice-presi- 
deucy. By his integrity, industry, and practical ability he won a place among the 
first statesmen of his day. His approval of the Fugitive Slave Law, however, cost him 
much of his popularity in the North. 

2 When Daniel Webster, the great American statesman and jurist, was fourteen 
years old, he first enjoyed the privilege of a few months' schooling at an academy. 
The man whose eloquence was afterwards to stir the nation was then so shy that he 
could not muster courage to speak before the school. In other respects, however, he 



224 TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION [1850 



The Compromise of 1850. — The Omnibus Bill, Clay's 
measure, proposed (1) that California should come in as a 
free State (p. 246) ; (2) that the Territories of Utali and New 
Mexico should l)e formed without any provision concern- 
ing slaver 5^; (o) that Texas 
should be paid $10,000,000 
to give up its claim on ter- 
ritory north and west of 
its present boun<laries. 
Clay also proposed (4) that 
the slave trade shonld be 
prohibited in the District 
of Columbia ; and (5) that 
a Fugitive Slave Law 
should be enacted, pro- 
viding more effectively 
for the return to their 
owners of slaves escap- 
ing to a free State. 
These various measures 
were finally, though sej^arately, adopted as the best solu- 
tion of the proljlem. 

Foreign Affairs. — Invasion of Cuba. — About five hun- 
dred adventurers, "fili])usters," undertook the annexation 
of Cuba to the United States. The attempt ended in de- 
feat, and in the execution, at Havana, of Lopez, the leader 
(1851). 

Political Parties. — The Democratic and Whig parties 

gavn (Icculod promise of bis fntiiro eminence. TTavinglinislicd hiscoll(>f;iatt' odnca- 
tion, he, ontcrert the profession of law. By rapid strides he placed himself at the head 
ot American orators. It was a disappointment to Wehster's friends, as it was, perhaps, 
to himself, that he was never placed in the i)rcHidential chair. But, like Clay, althongh 
he mifrht have honored that position, he needed it not to enhance his renown. His 
death, in 1H52, called out more orations and sermons than had any other except that of 
Wasliington. 




DANIl.l, ^\^:l!STF.K 



1852] POLITICAL PARTIES 225 

both declared that they stood by the provisions of the 
Compromise of 1850. The Free-soil party was outspoken 
against it. Franklin Pierce, the presidential nominee of 
the Democratic party, was elected by a large majority over 
General Scott, the Whig candidate. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Oregon. — Schouler's History of the United States, vol. iv. pp. 504-514. 
California.— ScboiUer, vol. v. pp. 129-142. 

Compromise of 1850.— Schouler, vol. v. pp. 143-148, 1G2-1V3, 178-189, 196-201 (North- 
ern vie v/) ; Stephens's War between the Slates, vol. ii. pp. 199-221, 231-233 (Southern view). 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — The Com- 
promise of 1850 produced only a lull in the slavery ex- 
citement. It burst out anew when Stephen A. Douglas 
brought into Congress his famous bill organizing the Ter- 
ritories of Kansas and Nebraska, and advocating the doc- 
trine of " squatter sovereignty," i.e. the right of the 
inhabitants of each Territory to decide for themselves 
whether or not slavery should be allowed there.^ This 

1 Frantlin Pierce was born 1804 ; died 1869. He had barely attained the requisite 
legal age when he was elected to the Senate. He there found such men as Clay, Web- 
ster, Calhoun, Seward, Benton, and Silas Wright. Nathaniel Hawthorne says in hia 
biography of Mr. Pierce : "With his usual tact and exquisite sense of propriety, he 
saw that it was not the time for him to step forward prominently on this highest thea- 
ter in the land. He beheld these great combatants doing battle before the eyes of the 
nation and engrossing its whole regards. There was hardly an avenue to reputation 
save what was occuined b;- one or another of those gigantic figures." During Mr. 
Tyler's administration he resigned. WTien the Mexican war broke out he enlisted as 
a volunteer, but soou rose to the rank of brigadier general. He distiiiguisbcd himself 
under General Scott, against whom be afterwards successfully ran for the presidency, 
and upon whom, during his administration, he conferred the title of lieutenant general. 
Pierce opposed autislavery measures in every shape, but at the opening of the Civil 
War he espoused the cause of the Union. 

2 The pul)lic lands have often threatened the peace of the nation. (1) The question 
of their ownership was one of the greatest obstacles to the union of the States after 
the Revolution ; but the threatened trouble was averted by the generosity of the land- 
holding States (p. 163). The public lands south of the Ohio Kiver were ceded on con- 




zn 



228 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1854 



bill, being a repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, ex' 
cited intense feeling.' It, however, became a law (1854). 
''^Border WarfareJ^ — The struggle was now taken from 
Congress to Kansas. A bitter contest arose between the 
proslavery and the antislavery men — the former anxious 
to secure the State for slavery, the latter for freedom. 
Each party sent armed emigrants to the Territory, and 
civil war ensued. Bands of armed men crossed over from 
Missouri, took possession of the polls, and controlled the 
elections. Houses were attacked and pillaged, and men 
were murdered in cold blood. For several years Kansas 
was the scene of lawless violence. 

Foreign Affairs . — Mexico. — 
Owing to a disagreement of the 
men appointed to locate the 
bounds of the Mexican cession, 
a dispute arose between the 
United States and Mexico. 
General Gadsden negotiated a 
settlement whereby Mexico was paid $10,000,000, and the 
United States secured (1853) the region known as the Gads- 
den purchase, which was added to New Mexico Territory. 

dition tliat they nhonld be slave soil. North of the Oliio ron>rros8 made the soil free 
(p. 1G3). (2) After OonKrcss acquired public lauda.wost of tlie Mississippi by the Loui- 
siana purchase, a perplexing question was, Shall they be free or slave soil 1 Upon it, 
for years, hinged largely the politics of the country. Tlie admission of Missouri, 
Texas, California, and Kansas was each the signal for the reojx'uing of this vexed 
question. Though the public lands have been t'.ie cause of intestine strife, they have 
been a source of great national wealth. Their sale lias brouglit large sums into the 
treasury. They have been given to settlers as a stinnilus to immigration. Tlu^y have 
been granted to endow colleires and schools, to build railroads, to reward the soldiers 
and support their widows and orphans. 

' The bitter discussion on thon^pcal of the Missouri Coini>romise, .and the contest 
In Kansas, last(>d for years. Benator Sumner, of Massachusetts, during a speech that 
occupied two days (May 10, '20, is.v.), having made some severe reflei^tions ui)on Senator 
Butler, of South Carolina, was assaulted l>y Preston S. Brooks, a lu'phew of Butler and 
a South Carolina representative. Mr. Brooks, having resigned his seat, was imme- 
diately returned. It was over three years before Mr. Sumner recovered his health. 




O 

SCAtE OF MILES 



MEXICAN CESSION OF ia53. 



1854] 



FOEEIGN AFFAIRS 



229 



Japan. — Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan (1854) 
excited great attention. He negotiated a treaty which 
gave to the merchants of the United States two ports of 
entry in that exclusive country. This was the first step 




PERRY'S VISIT TO JAPAN. 

made by Japan toward the acquirement of modern 
methods of commerce and modern civilization, in which 
she is now so far advanced. 

Political Parties. — The Compromise of 1820 having been 
repealed, the slavery question became the turning point 
of the election. New party lines were drawn to meet this 
issue.^ The Whig party ceased to exist. The new Repub- 
lican party, absorbing all who opposed the extension of 
slavery, nominated John C. Fremont, who received the 



• A tliird party, called the Know-notlilng or American party, was organized to 
resist the influence of foreigners. It carried tlie vote of only one State, Maryland. 
Its motto was " America for Americans." The party aroused bitter feelings, but had 
only a transient existence. 
B. HIST. U. 8.— 14 



230 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1857 

vote of eleven States. The Democratic party, retaining its 
organization, nominated James Buchanan, who was elected 

President. 

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Bred Scott' Decision. — The Supreme 
Court of the United States (1857), through Chief Justice 
Taney, declared that slave-owners might take their slaves 
into any State in the Union without forfeiting their rights 
of property. In the North, this was considered as remov- 
ing the last barrier to the extension of slavery, and as 
changing it from a local to a national institution ; in the 
South, it was regarded only as a right guaranteed them 
by the Constitution, whereby they should be protected in 
the possession of their property in every State. 

The Fugitive Slave Law had intensified the already 
heated controversy, and the subject of slavery now dis- 

) James Buchanan was born 1791; died 18G8. The first "bachelor President" was 
sixty-six years old when called to the executive chair. He had just returned to liis 
native country after an absence of some years as minister to England. Before that, 
he had been well known in public life, having been representative, senator, and 
Secretary of State. As senator in Jackson's time he heartily supported his adminis- 
tration. With Van Buren ho wannly advocated the plaa of an independent treasury 
(p. 209), against the opposition of Clay, Webster, and others. Under Tyler, he was 
urgently in favor of the annexation of Texas, thus again coming into conflit^twith 
Clay and Webster. IIo cordially agreed with them, however, in the Compromise of 
1850(p. 224), and urged the people to adopt it. Much was hoped from his election, a.s 
he avowed that the object of his administration was to destroy any sectional party 
and to restore fraternal feeling between the different States. But popular passion and 
sectional jealousy were too strong to j'ii^ld to pleasant persuasion. When Mr. Bu- 
chanan's administration closed, the horrors of civil war were close at hand. He 
retired to his estate in Pennsylvania, where he died. 

'i Scott and liis wife were slaves belonging to a surgeon in the United States army. 
They were taken into and resided in Illinois and Minnesota, in territory from w hich, 
by the Ordinance of 1787, slavery was forever excluded. Afterwards they were car- 
ried Into Missouri, where they and their children were held as slaves. Tliey claimed 
freedom on the ground that, by the act of their master, they had been carried into 
free t<'riitory. Tlie decision of the court against their claims created an Intense ex- 
dtement throughout the country. 



1859] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS . 231 

placed all others. The provision which commanded every 
good citizen to aid in the arrest of fugitives was espe- 
cially obnoxious to the North. Disturbances arose when- 
ever attempts were made to restore runaway slaves to 
their masters. Several of the Northern States passed 
"Personal Liberty" bills, securing to fugitive slaves, when 
arrested, the right of trial by jury. The Southerners 
claimed that these laws practically nullified the Fugitive 
Slave Law passed by Congress. Hundreds of slaves were 
assisted to escape to the far North or to Canada by men 
who hated the institution of slavery.^ Regular routes 
were established for escaping slaves, and the whole sys- 
tem was called the " Underground Railroad." 

John Brown, a man who had brooded over the exciting 
scenes through which he had passed in Kansas until he 
thought himself called upon to take the law into his own 
hands, seized upon the United States arsenal at Harpers 
Ferry (1859), and proclaimed freedom to the slaves in the 
vicinity. His feeble band was soon overpowered by United 
States troops, and Brown himself was found guilty of 
treason, of inciting slaves to rebel, and of murder, and was 
hanged. Though it was soon known that in his wild 
design he had asked counsel of no one, yet at the time the 
Southern feeling was aroused to frenzy, his act being 
looked upon as significant of the sentiments of the North. 
Sympathy for the man was mistaken for sympathy in his 
cause. 

New States. — The admission of Minnesota, Oregon, and 
Kansas, all as free States, ended the policy of keeping 
the free and slave States equal in number (p. 247). 

' The feeling against slavery was greatly increased by Mrs. Stowe's novel called 
Jlncle Tom's Oabin, whioli gives a vivid picture of tlio possible evils of slavery. The 
book had an enormous sal^ at the time, and is still read in many countries besides our 
own. The South, however, considered the novel to be misleading and incendiary. 



232 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1860 

Political Parties. — The election again turned on the 
question of slavery. The Democratic party now divided, 
and made two conflicting nominations for President: 
Stephen A. Douglas, who favored squatter sovereignty 
(p. 225), and John C. Breckinridge, who claimed that 
slavery could be carried into any Territory. The Repub- 
lican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, who held that 
while slavery must be protected where it was, it ought 
not to be carried into the Territories.^ Lincoln was elected. 

The South Secedes. — Throughout the fall campaign the 
Southern leaders had threatened to secede if Mr. Lincoln 
was elected. They now declared it was time to leave a 
government which had fallen into the hands of their 
avowed enemies. Since the days of Calhoun they had 
been firm believers in the doctrine of State rights, which 
taught that a State could leave the Union whenever it 
pleased. In December (1860) South Carolina seceded, and, 
soon after, Mississippi, Florida^ Alabama, Greoi-gia, Louisi- 
ana, and Texas passed ordinances of secession. In 
February (1861) delegates from these States met at 
Montgomery, Ala., and formed a government called the 
"Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis,- of 

• The Union party put up John Bell, of Tennessee. Its motto was, "The Union' 
tbe Constitution, and tlic enforcement of tlie laws." 

2 Jefferson Davis was born 1808 ; died 1889. He was a United Stiites senator from 
Mississippi when that State seceded, and had Umg l)eeu prominent in national affairs. 
A graduate of the AVest Point Military Academy, ho served as an army olTicer in the 
Black Hawk War and elsewhere against the Indians. Ho resigned in 1835, and settled 
near Vicksburg, Miss., as a cotton planter. His ability as a public speaker won him 
a seat in Congress (184.5), which ho left to becoTiie colon(4 of the First Mississippi 
Volunteers in the war with Mexico. His regiment formed part of the army under 
General Taylor (Davis's father-in-law), and did some hard lighting at Monterey and 
Buena Vista, where Davis was severely wounded. Ho entered the United States Senate 
in 1847, was the unsuccessful candidate for governor of Mississijjpi in IS.'jl, and in 
1853-57 was Secretary of War. In tlie Senate he was a zealous and able advocate of 
State rights, but up to tlie time of Lincoln's election he labored to preserve the Union, 
He is the author of Tfie Rise and Fall of the Confederate Oovemment <1881), in 
wbivh he maintains the Justice of tbe Boutbero cause. 




r~^iZ^..^^^-^-^i-<^-t^^^ 



233 



234 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1860 

Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. 
Stephens, of Georgia, Vice President. United States 
forts, arsenals, customhouses, and ships were seized by 
the States in which they were situated. Buchanan did 
nothing to j^revent the catastrophe. General Scott was 
iufii'm. The regular army was small and widely scat- 
tered. The navy had been sent to distant ports. The 
Cabinet sympathized largely with the secessionists. Nu- 
merous unsuccessful efforts were made to effect a com- 
promise. It was the general expectation that there 
would be no war, and the cry "No coercion" was gen- 
eral.' Yet affairs steadily drifted on toward war.^ 

Fort Sumter. — All eyes were now turned on Fort Sum- 
ter. Here Major Anderson kept the United States flag 



' Even the New York Tribune declared: "Wlienever any considerable section of 
our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out, we shall resist all coercive measures to 
keep them iu." 

- Southern secession was not a sudden movement. The sectional difference between 
the North and tlie South had its source in the difference of climate, which frreatly 
modified the cliaracter and liabits of the people ; also, wliile the agi-ieultural pursuits 
and staple i)r()ducts of the South made slave labor pr<)fltal)le, the mechanical pursuits 
and the more varied products of the North made it unprofitable. These autagonisins, 
settled first by the Missouri Compromise of 1820, reopened by the tariff of 1828, 
bursting forth in tiie nullification of 1832, pacified by Clay's compromise tariff, in- 
creased through the annexation of Texas and the consequent war with Mexico, iiTi- 
tatedby th(! Wilmot Proviso, lulled for a time by the Compromise of 1850, awakened 
by the "squatter sovereignty" policy of r)on;rlas, roused to fury by the a^citation in 
Kansas, spread broadcast by the Bred Scott decision, the attempt(Hl execution of the 
Fugitive Slave Law, and the John Brown raid, had now reached a point where war 
was the only remedy. The election of Lincoln was the pivot on which the result 
turned. The cause ran back through thirty years of controversy to the difference in 
climate, in occupation, an<l iu the habit of life and thought. Strange to say, each 
section mlsunilerstood tlie other. The Southern people believed the North to be so 
engrossed iu m(mey-making and so enfeebled by luxury that It could send to the field 
only mercenary soldiers, who would easily be beatcm by the patriotic Southerners. 
They said, " Cotton is king" ; and believed that England and France were so depend- 
ent upon them for that staple that their republic would be recognized and defended 
by those European powers. On the other hand, the Northern people did not believe 
that the South would dare to fight for secession when it had 4,noo,noo slaves exposed 
to the chances of war. They thought the Southern threats to be all Iduster, and hence 
paid little heed to tbeiu. Both sides sadly learned their mistake, only too late. 



1860] FUKT SUMTEK 235 

flying in Charleston harbor. He had been stationed in 
Fort Moultrie, but, fearing an attack, had crossed over to 
Fort Sumter, a stronger position. The South Carolinians, 
looking upon this as a hostile act, took possession of the 
remaining forts, commenced erecting batteries, and pre- 
pared to reduce Fort Sumter. Major Anderson was com- 
pelled by his instructions to remain a quiet spectator. 
The Star of the West, an unarmed steamer bearing sup- 
plies to the fort, was fired upon and driven back. The 
Southern leaders declared that any attempt to relieve 
Fort Sumter would be a declaration of war. The govern- 
ment seemed paralyzed with fear. All now waited for the 
new President. 

In the next epoch we shall learn about the terrible Civil 
War caused by this effort to secede. During its progress 
slavery received its deathblow, and the issue of the con- 
flict decided that the nation should be henceforth " one 
and inseparable." 

COLLATERAL READING 

The Presidential Election of 1860. — Schouler's History of the United States, vol. v. 
pp. 454r-469. 

SOCIETY BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR 

Obliteration of Rank. — The free air of the New World, 
and the independent thought upon every question, con- 
duced to break down the distinctions of rank and dress 
that were at fii'st established (p. 105). This tendency early 
became a source of anxiety to the colonial legislator. In 
1640 it was ordered that as "divers Persons of severall 
Eanks are obsearved still to exceede" in their apparel, 
"the Constables of every towne within their Libertyes 
shall observe and take notice of any particular Person or 



236 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 



Persons within their severall Lymits, and all such as they 
-judge to exceede their condition and Rank therein, they 

shall present and warn to appear 
at the particular Court." 

These " sumptuary laws " were 
not a dead letter, for we read of one 
Alice Flynt who was cited before 
the court and required to show that 
she was worth the two hundred 
pounds required to entitle her to 
wear a silk hood. After Independ- 
ence, social changes went on rap- 
idly. The title "Master" came to 
be confined to holders of slaves, 
while "Mr.," once a sure sign of 
rank, was applied to every male 
in the land, and to omit 
it, when speaking of 
great men, became a 
mark of distinction. So 
rapidly did the new ideas spread, that when 
Lafayette visited America in 1824, he 
asked with astonishment, "Where are the 
common people?" He saw only crowds of 
well dressed citizens, but no yeomen, me- 
chanics, merchants, and servants — the four 
ranks below that of gentleman that were to 
be distinctly observed when he first saw the 
country, in Revolutionary times. 

Men's knee breeches were discarded for 
trousers about 1815. Though fashions constantly varied, 
as they do still, these two pictures show about how people 
dressed for a number of years before the Civil War. 




WOMAN'S IJKESS, ABOUT 1840. 




MAN'S DKKSS, 
AlJOl'T 1840. 



SOCIETY BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR 237 

The Laborer of post-Revolutionary days, though he had 
secured social and political privileges, could obtain far 
fewer comforts than he can to-day. His house had neither 
paint nor glass windows. Within, it was low and dingy. 
The floor knew no carpets or rugs. The kitchen had no 
stove, or lamp, or coal, or matches. There was no glass 
or chinaware on his table, but he ate his homely fare 
from a wooden platter. Fresh meat was a rarity. All the 
staples of life were expensive to one who received only 
two shillings a day. Leather breeches and apron, a coarse 
flannel jacket, and heavy cowhide shoes were the best his 
wardrobe could afford. 

The growth of manufactures in the period 1825-60 
caused many improvements in the condition of laborers. 
A number of trades unions were organized at this time. 
After 1835 many strikes occurred. Wages were gradually 
increased, and an agitation was begun for shortening the 
work day ; in some cases the hours of labor were reduced 
from twelve or fourteen to ten a day. All this applies, 
of course, chiefly to the Northern States; in the South, 
practically all labor was performed by slaves. 

Imprisonment for Debt was common for many years 
after the Revolution as well as before it. The poor man just 
recovering from a long sickness was liable to be arrested 
for the nonpayment of the little bills incurred during his 
illness, and thrust into prison among the vilest offenders. 
As late as 1830, it is estimated, there were more than 
50,000 people imprisoned for debt in the United States, 
many of them for sums as small as one dollar. But about 
that time the various States began, one by one, to make 
laws abolishing the imprisonment of debtors. Improve- 
ments were also gradually made in the condition of pris- 
ons and in the care of the insane. 



238 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 

The Schools, even within the memory of many persons 
now living, were far inferior in equipment and methods 
to those of our day. The text-books were few and coarsely 
executed. In early times the only reading books were 
the Bible, the Psalter, and the New England Primer. 
After the Revolution, the Columbian Orator — filled with 
patriotic selections — attained a great celebrity. When 
Webster's American Spelling Book was issued, about 1784, 
it gradually came into general use. Murray's Grammar 
and DaboU's Arithmetic were the standards for half a 
century. The ordinary geography was in two volumes — 
one containing the maps and the other the text. Morse 
invented (1839) a process of engraving whereby the maps 
could be struck off with the text, on a common printing 
press. In a single year 100,000 copies of his New Geog- 
raphy went into use. Writing books were usually home- 
made from foolscap, and ruled by the puj)il with lead 
plummets of his own manufacture. Slate pencils were 
also whittled out by the boys from soft claystones. 
Quill pens were used, and their making constituted no 
small part of a teacher's task. Wall maps, charts, V)lack- 
boards, globes, etc., came in only slowly as education 
advanced. 

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 

During the Revolution, while our commerce was de- 
stroyed and our agricultural interests greatly injured, some 
manufactures received an impetus from the fact that the 
war stopped nearly all imports. The peoi)le were forced 
to make for themselves many things which had previously 
been obtained from abroad. 

After peace was made, however, great quantities of 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 239 

manufactured goods were shipped in from abroad, glut- 
ting the markets here, lowering the prices, and discoura- 
ging our manufacturers. But with continued peace, and 
especially after the adoption of our Constitution, all our 
industries revived. In the great war between France and 
Great Britain (1793-1815), each of these countries did 
much to destroy the other's ships and trade. As the 
neutrality of the United States was at first respected, our 
ships were given a great advantage, and our commerce 
and shipbuilding increased by leaps and bounds, as did 
also our agricultural prosperity, until the commerce of 
the United States was exceeded by that of no country in 
the world except Great Britain. 

But each of these warring nations (France and Great 
Britain) soon attacked our trade with the other, and our 
foreign commerce was completely stopped for a time by 
the embargo (p. 183) ; whereupon the people again gave 
more attention to manufactures. 

The War of 1812 repeats our industrial history. Dur- 
ing the war our commerce was swept from the sea and 
our manufactures were increased ; and upon the conclusion 
of peace a great flood of imports swamped our growing 
manufactures and brought on a period of hard times. In- 
deed, people then found it so hard to make a living in 
the seaboard States that there was a rush to the West. So 
many people emigrated that five new western States were 
admitted to the Union between 1816 and 1821. 

In a few years, however, general prosperity returned, 
and the period from about 1820 to 1860 was marked by a 
marvelous advance in all branches of industry. This was 
due largely to the invention of labor-saving machines, 
and to the growth of population. 

Among the American inventions of this period, besides 



240 



DEVELOPMENT OP THE STATES 



the steamboat (p. 181) and the telegraph (p. 212), were 
the sewing machine, mower, reaper, horse rake, steam 
fire engine, and the vulcanizing of rubber. The vast ex- 
tent of cheap and fertile land in this country, together 
with the better wages paid hero for labor, led thousands 
of emigrants from Europe to come to this country every 
year. A great' famine in Ireland in 1847 made the num- 
ber much larger, and for several years it was over 300,000 
a year. The total population of the country increased 
from 4,000,000 in 1790 to 31,000,000 in 1860. 




PICKING COTTON. 



Agriculture. — In the South the greatest change was the 
increase in the growth of cotton (p. 172), until this became 
the staple product of the section, and our most valuable 
export. In 1784, when eight bags of cotton were sent to 
Liverpool, the customhouse authorities seized it on the 
plea that so much could not have been raised in America. 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 241 

The yield in 1860 was over 4,500,000 bales, and the United 
States controlled the cotton supply of the world. In 
Louisiana the production of cane sugar became of some 
importance. Tobacco and rice were raised as before, but 
the production of indigo was abandoned. The middle 
West became a highly prosperous agricultural region. 
The production of hay and grain was increased by the in- 
vention of tbe mower, reaper, and other agricultural 
machinery. In the whole country food crops were raised 
in greater abundance and variety, and cattle, sheep, hogs, 
horses, and other domestic animals greatly increased in 
numbers. 

The increasing demand for lumber during this period 
caused a steady growth in the industry of lumbering. 
Besides, much timber was cut and burned merely to clear 
the ground for agriculture. 

Mining. — From very small beginnings the mining in- 
dustry grew to great proportions. The most important 
mines were those of coal and iron in Pennsylvania, but 
nearly every State yielded mineral products of some kind. 
In the reduction of iron ore and the working of iron, until 
about 1840, charcoal made from wood was the fuel em- 
ployed ; but by 1860 this had given place almost entirely 
to coke made from coal. During the first half of the cen- 
tury gold was sparingly mined in the foothills of the south- 
ern Appalachians, but these mines were entirely eclipsed 
by the far richer ones of California, which led to the rapid 
settlement and admission of that State. Soon after this 
the silver mines of Nevada attracted much attention. 
Lead has been mined in Missouri, and copper in Michi- 
gan, from the earliest times. New York has long supplied 
large quantities of salt. Building stones, as needed, have 
been quarried in many States. 



242 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 

The Manufactures of the country in the year 1860 
amounted to nearly $2,000,000,000 worth — ten times the 
value of the output in 1810. The great feature in the de- 
velopment of manufacturing was the introduction of the 
factory system; that is, the plan of making articles by 
the help of machines in factories instead of at the homes 
of the workmen. As the machine-made factory products 
became cheaper and cheaper, the household manufactures 
were abandoned. The new system stimulated the gi-owth 
of cities : in 1790 there were very few towns, and nearly 
all the people lived in the country, but in 1860 there were 
140 cities and large towns, in which lived one sixth of our 
total population. 

In 1790 Samuel Slater began the operation of the first 
good cotton-spinning machinery in this country; he 
has been called "the father of American manufactures." 
About a quarter of a century later Francis C Lowell 
started the first factory which carried on all the processes 
of making cotton goods — from raw fiber to cloth — by 
improved machinery, including the power loom. By 1860 
there were 1000 cotton factories. Nearly all of these 
were in New England and the Middle States, but a few 
were in the South. Thus Whitney's cotton gin not only 
made the South prosperous in raising cotton, but also 
afforded the North an important industry in manufactur- 
ing the fiber into cloth. 

Among the other branches of manufacture which 
reached a flourishing condition before 1860 were the 
making of woolen goods, the making of boots and shoes, 
iron manufacture, and the making of rubber goods. 

Transportation. — Within a few years after the first trip 
of the Clermont (p. 181), steamboats were plying on 
nearly every navigable river and lake in the Union. 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 



243 



Canals were dug in several States. Many roads were laid 
out/ The ears on the first railroads were drawn by horses, 
and it was not till 1830 that steam locomotives were used 
for this purpose.^ In 1860 there were 30,000 miles of rail- 




AN EARLY RAILEOAD TRAIN. 

road in the country. The express business was begun in 
1839, between New York and Boston. It grew rapidly, 
and soon there were established a dozen express com- 
panies. 

Commerce. — With the increase in the area of the coun- 
try and the greater variety of its industries, domestic com- 
merce came to be much 
greater than the foreign 
commerce, though the 
latter steadily increased 
in value. Great num- 
bers of ships (especially 
wooden sailing ships) 
were built, and American 
clippers were famous for 
their speed. About 1860 
more American shipping was engaged in foreign trade 
than ever before or since. 

' One of the most important was the National Pike, or Cumberland Road, which ex- 
tended from the Potomac River to Wheeling, on the Ohio, and beyond. I'his was begun 
in the year 1806, and was constructed by the United States government. 

2 The first locomotive built in America was made by Peter Cooper, of New Yort, for 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 




CLIPPER SHIP. 



244 NEW STATES ri791 



NEW STATES (1789-1861) 

The States admitted during the fourth epoch increased the nxiniber in the Union 
from tliirteen to thirty-four. (See Table of States, in the appendix.) 

Vermont, the fourteenth State, was admitted to the L'nion March 4, 1791. Cham 
plain discovered and explored much of it in 1609. The first settlement was made in 
1724, at Fort Dummer, near the site of Brattleboro. The region was claimed by both 
New Hampshire and New York (p. 127). In 1777 the inhabitauts declared the "New 
Hampshire Grants " an independent State, under tlie name of Vermont; and in 1790 
New York consented to relinquish her claim oil the payment of $30,000. 

Kentucky, the fifteenth State, was admitted to the Union Juno 1, 1792. Daniel 
Boone, a famous hunter, for two years rambled tkrough tlie forests of this region, do- 
lighted with its scenery and the abundance of game. After many tlirilliug adventures 
and narrow escapes from the Indians, he establis'.ied a fort at Booncsboro, and removed 
his family thither in June, 1775. This was the first permanent eettlemeut in the State, 
then a part of Virginia, from wliich it was not separated till it became a State. 

Tennessee, the sixteenth State, was admitted to the Union June 1, 1796. It was 
named from the River Tennessee, the " river with the great bend." It is thought that 
De Soto, in his wanderings, reached the Mississipjii near the spot where Memphis 
now stands. The first permanent settlement in the State was at Fort Loudon (low'don), 
thirty miles from tlie jiresent site of Knoxville, in 1757. This was the first permanent 
En.;lish settlement south of Pennsylvania and west of the Alleghanies. In 1779 James 
Robertson and others located where Nashville now stands, but where was then a wil- 
derness. Tennessee was originally part of North Carolina. In 1784 its inhabitants 
formed the "State of Franklin" and set up an independent government. But North 
Carolina resumed control in a few years, and in 17C0 ceded this region to the United 
States, whereupon Congress gave it a territorial government. 

OhU), the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union February 19, 1803. It was 
so called from the river of that name, signifying the "beautiful river." The first 
explorations were made by the French, under La Salle, about 1669. The first perma- 
nent settlement was at Marietta, in 1788. Ohio was the first State carved out of the 
Northwest Territory (p. 1G3). 

Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was admitted to the Union April 30, 1812. The 
name Louisiana was originally given to the entire Mississippi valley, in honor of 
Louis XIV., king of France, in 1G82 (p. 39). New Orleans, founded in 1718, was the first 
important settlement in the present State. Earlier settlements were made along the 
Gulf coast, in what are now Mississippi and Alabama. In 1718 the colony was granted 
to the great Mississippi Company, organized by John Law, at Paris, for the purpose 
of settling and deriving profit from the French possessions in North America. In a 
fever of speculation the shares of this company rose in price to thirty or forty times 
their original value. When the bubble burst, the French crown resumed control of 
the country. The territorj^ west of the river, together with New Orleans, was given 
to Spain in 1763, but in 1800 was ceded back to France. When the United States pur- 
chased it (p. 17C), Louisiana included all the region between the Mississippi and the 
Rocky Mountains and north to the British possessions; also New Orleans and a strip 
of land along the Gulf coast east of the river, of disputed extent. In 1804 the entire 
region was divided into two parts — theTerritory of Orleans, which included the present 
State of Louisiana, and the District of Louisiana, which comprised the remainder. 



1816] NEW STATES 245 

The former was admitted to tlie Union as Louisiana; tlie latter became the Territory 
of Louisiana in 1805, and its name was afterwards changed to Missouri Territory. 

Indiana, the niuetceuth State, was admitted to the Union December 11, ISIG. The 
Territory of Indiana, establii^hcd in 1800, at tirst included practically all of (lie North- 
west Territory west of what is now Ohio. Indiana was the second State admitted from 
the Northwest Territory. After th(i Indian difficulties which hindered its early devel- 
opment had subsided, its growth was very rapid. Between 1810 and 1820 its population 
increased six hundred per cent. 

Mississippi, the twentieth State, was admitted to the Union December 10, 1817. 
De Soto ti-aversed this region in 1541. The French made a temporary settlement at 
Biloxi in 1099; and other settlements were established on the Mississippi soon after. 
In 1728 the Indians swept every vestige of civilization from the present limits of the 
State. Under the French governors who followed, fierce and bloody wars were waged 
with the Natch' ez, Chick'asaw, and Choctaw Indians; but in 17G3 most of this region, 
with other French territory east of the Mississippi, was given to Great Britain. The 
Mississippi Territory was created in 1798, including land in dispute between Georgia 
and the United States. Lands ceded by South Carolina, Georgia, and France and 
Spain were afterwards added until it embraced the present States of Mississippi 
and Alabama. The latter became a separate Territory in March, 1817. 

Illinois, the twenty-flrst State, was admitted to the Union December 3, 1818. Its 
first settlements were made by the French. The Illinois Territory, comprising the 
present States of Illinois, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota and Michigan, M'as estab- 
lished in 1809. The settlement of this Territory was greatly impeded by Indian hostili- 
ties. The massacre at Fort Dearborn (Chicago), in 1812, and the Black Hawk War are 
instances of the dangers and trials which beset the pioneer. Tlie' great prosperity of 
the State dates from the year 1850, when munificent grants of land were made to the 
Central Railroad. The prairie wUderness was rapidly settled, and towns and cities 
sprang up as by magic. 

Alabama, the twenty-second State, was admitted to the Union December 14, 1819. 
It was a part of Mississippi Territory till 1817, when it was made a separate Territory. 
The fierce contests with the Creek Indians, ended by Jackson, opened to the settlers in 
Alabama a vast and fertile region. The first settlement was made by Bienville (be Sn- 
veel') on Mobile Bay in 1702. Nine years afterwards the present site of Mobile was 
occupied. Mobile was for many years the capital of French Louisiana. Having been 
ceded to Great Britain and then (as part of Florida) to Spain, in 1813 it was captured 
by the United States, which claimed it as part of Louisiana. 

Maine, the twenty-third State, was admitted to the Union, with the consent of Mas- 
sachusetts, March 15, 1820 (see pp. 66, 67). 

Missoiiri, the twenty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union August 10, 1821. Its 
oldest town, Ste. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. St. Louis was settled nine years 
after, but was not incorporated as a town until 1809 ; its first newspaper was published 
in 1808, and the first steamboat arrived at its wharf in 1817. When the District of Loui- 
siana was organized as Louisiana Territory in 1805, St. Loviis was made its capital. On 
the admission of Louisiana, the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri. When 
Missouri became a State it was given its present limits, except the northwest corner, 
which was purchased from the Indians and added to Missouri in 1836. 

Arkansas, the twenty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union June 15, 1836. It was 
explored and settled by the French under Chevalier de Tonty as early as 1685. Shortly 
before the admission of the State of Missouri, Arkansas was organized as a Territory, 
including the present State and also a large area to the west of it. 
B. HIST. V. S.— 15 



246 NEW STATES [1837 

Michigan, the twenty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union January 20, 1837. It 
was early visilt-d Ity missionaries (ii. 38) and tur traders. Detroit was founded in I70i 
by Cadillac. This region was tirst a part of thi^ Northwest Territory and tlieii of Indiana 
Territory; hut the "lower peninsula" was organized as a separate Territory in is:")."). 
Th«! country north of tlie present State of Illinois was annexed to Michigan Territory 
in 1818, and that north of Missouri in 1834. The State was given its iireseut boundaries 
in 1836. 

Florida, the twenty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union March 3, 1845. Its 
early visitors,— Ponce de Leon, Narvaez, and T>e Soto,— its first settlement at St. 
Augustine, its history under the Spaniards, and the Seminole War are described in 
earlier pages (tf this book. After the purchase from Spain, the Territory of Florida 
was organized March 30, 1822. 

Texas, the twenty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union December 29, 1845. It 
was explored by La Salle (p. 39). The Spaniards afterwards explored and partly settled 
the couutrj', establishing missions at various points. These did not prosper, however, 
and the region was populated mainlj' by roving bands of Indians. Civil war had im- 
poverished the few settlers who were unable to flee from the country, and Galveston 
was nearly deserted, when, in 1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, obtained 
from the Spanish authorities in Mexico a grant of land. Emigration from the United 
States was encouraged, and in 1830 there were 20,000 Americans in Texas. The jealousy 
of Mexico being excited, acts of oppression followed, and in 1835 the Texaus were 
driven to begin a war for independence. In 1836 the Mexican President, Santa Anna, 
attacked the Alii'mo with 4000 men. The fort was garrisoned by only 172 men, and 
every one of that gallant few died at his post except seven. Mho were killed while 
asking for quarter. Here David Crockett, the famous hunter, who had volunteered to 
tight with the Texans for their liberty, fell, i>ierced with wounds, but surrounded by 
the corpses of those whom he had cut down before he was overpowered. In the battle 
of Siin Jacinto (map, p. 214), Santa Anna, with 1500 men, was defeated by 800 under 
General Sam Houston. Santa Anna was soon capturtul, and agreed to tenns of peace. 
The next year (1837) Texas sought admission into the Union. In 1844 the question was 
revived. The close of Tylei-'s administration was marked by the signing of a resolution 
of Congress for its admission. This measure was ratified by Texas the same year. 
In 1850 the State gave ui) its claim to lands northwest of its present limits, including 
half of New Mexico and small parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Colorado (p. 224). 

Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was adnntted to the Union December 28, 1846. Julien 
Du buque', a Canadian Frenchman, obtained, in 1788, a largo tract of land, including 
the present site of Dubuque. He there built a fort and traded with the Indians till 
1810. The first permanent settlement was made at Burlington, in 1833, by emigrants 
from Illinois. Tlie same year Dubuque was founded. This region of the Louisiana 
purchase was successively a part of Missouri, Michigan, and AVisconsin Territories, 
but was organized separately in 1838. It then included the parts of Minnesota and the 
Dakotas between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers; but when admitted as a State it 
was reduced to its present limits. 

Wisconsin, the thirtieth State, was admitted to the Union May 29, 1848. It was ex- 
plored l)y French missionaries and traders as early as 1639. Green Bay was founded in 
1745. This region was part of the Northwest Territory. It was comprised in the Terri- 
tory of Illinois, then of Michigan, and in 1836 became a separate Territory. 

California, the thirty-first State, was admitted to the I'nion September 9, 18.50 
(p. 224). Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, sailed along its coast, naming it New Albion (p. 41). 
In 1769 the Spaniards established the mission of San Diego (de ago), and in 1776 one at 



1858] NEW STATES > 247 

San Francisco. In 1803 they had eighteen missions with over 15,000 converts, and the 
government of the country was in the hands of Franciscan monks. The Mexican 
revolution, in 1822, overthrew the Spanish power in California, and, soon after, the 
Franciscans were stripped of their wealth and influence. In 1831 the white population 
did not exceed 5000. From 1843 to 1816 many emigrants from the United States settled 
in California. By the treaty at the close of the Mexican war, the United States ac- 
quired Upper California and New Mexico, embracing what are now known as California, 
Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. The town 
of San Francisco was known as Yerba Buena (good Jierb) until 1847, when it was given 
its present name. About that time it had a population of 459, and its chief business 
was a small trade in exporting hides. The discovery of gold in California gave the 
city its first great importance. Within eighteen months following December, 1849, 
the city lost by fire $16,000,000 worth of property, though its population did not exceed 
30,000. Such, however, was the enterprise of its citizens that these tremendous losses 
scarcely interrupted its 'growth or prosperity. 

Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union May 11, 1858. In 
1680 a French priest named Hennepin penetrated this region. Other travelers fol- 
lowed, but only within the nineteenth century was the whole country thoroughly 
explored. Fort Snellingwas established in 1819. The first building in St. Paul was 
erected about 1838. The Territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, with the Mis- 
souri and White Earth rivers for its western boundary, thus embracing nearly twice the 
area of the present State. At that time its population was less than 5000, consisting 
chiefiy of whites and half-breeds settled about the various missions and trading posts. 
In 1851 the Sioux ceded a large tract of land to the United States. After this the popu- 
lation increased so rapidly that in six years Minnesota applied for admission into 
the Union. 

Oregon, the thirty-third State, was admitted to the Union February 14, 1859. In 
1792 Captain Gray, of Boston, entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship 
— Columbia. On his return he made such a flattering report that there was a general 
desire to know more of the country. After the Lewis and Clark expedition (p. 178) an ex- 
tensive fur trade soon began. Fort Astoria was built in 1811 by the American Fur Com- 
pany, of which John Jacob Astor was a prominent member. Hunters and trappers in 
the employ of American and British companies roamed over the whole region. Fort 
Vancouver was occupied by the Hudson Bay Company, a British organization, till 
1860. After 1836, and especially after 1842, American emigration set overland to this 
region. The danger of war, which had seriously threatened its dawning prosperity, 
was averted when the northwest boundary was settled by the treaty of 1846. In 1848 
Oregon was organized as a Territory, and included all the land west of the Rocky 
Mountains between the parallels of 42° and 49° north latitude. In 1850 Congress granted 
three hundred and twenty acres to every man, and the same to his wife, on condition 
of residence on the land for four years. Eight thousand claims were made for farms. 
In 1853 the northern part of Oregon was cut off and constituted Washington Territory ; 
and in 1859 the present eastern limit of Oregon was established. 

Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union January 29, 1861. 
Nearly all of this region was part of the Louisiana purchase. After the States of 
Louisiana, Ai'kansas, Missouri, and Iowa, and Minnesota Territory had been carved 
from that purchase, there was left a vast unoccupied tract west of the Missouri River, 
which was organized by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. The territorial government 
of Kansas was proslavery (p. 228), but when the people came to vote on the adoption 
of a State constitution, the majority were show.i to be antislavery. 



248 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Washinfiton's Admin- 
istration. (I7s'j-y<.) 



2. John Adams's Admin- 
istration. (1707-1801.) 



3, Jefferson's Administra- 
tion. (1801-09.) 



4. Madison's Administra- 
tion. (180'J-17.) 



5. Monroe's Administra- 
tion. (1817- :id.) 

(>. John Quincy Adams's 
Adm i n isi ration. 
(1825-20.) 



7. Jackson's Administra- 
tion. (1820-37.) 



8. Van Buren's Adminis- 
tration. (1837-11.) 



9. Harrison and Tyler's 
Admi nistration. 
(1841-45.) 



10. Polk's Administra- 
tion. (1845-49.) 



11. Taylor and Fillmore's 

Administration. 
(1849-53.) 

12. Pierce's Administra- 

tion. (1853-57.) 



13. Buchan.-xn's Adminis- 

tration. (1857-01.) 

14. Society before the Civil 

15. Industrial History. 

16. New States. (1789-1861.) 



1. In-iHgruration. 

2. Difficulties of the New Government 

Kiiiaiic 



3. Domestic Affairs. 



h. Nutioiiul Cupital. 
c. Ciittoii (iin. 
rf. Wliisky K( iicllion. 
e. Indiun Wars. 



4. Foreign Affairs. 



\t 



Great Bntain. 
Spain and Algiers. 
France. 
5. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Purchase of Louisiana. 

I.cwifl and Clark Expedition. 
Twelfth Amendment. 
Aaron Bcirr. 
. d. Fulton H Steandxiat. 



Alien and SSeditioii Laws. 
France. 



Domestic Affairs. 



Foreign Affairs. 
Political Parties. 
Domestic Affairs. 

Foreigti Affairs — 
War with Great 
Britain. 



3. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Foreiirn Affairs. 

3. Political I'arties. 

1. Harrison's Deatlu 

2. Domestic Affairs. 

3. Foreign Affairs. 
i. Political Parties. 

1. Foreign Aff.iirs. 

2. Domestic Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Taylor's Death. 

2. Domestic Affaii5. 

3. Foreign Affairs. 

4. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 



B'oreign .Affairs. 
Politiral Parties. 



a. Wi:r with Tripoli. 

6. Great Britain and France. 

Battle of Tippecanoe. 

a. CaiiKes. 

h. War on Land, 1812. 1813, 1S14. 

c. War on .Sea. 1812, I8ia 

rf. Pence. 

e. Battli' cif New Orleans. 

/. Reeulta of the War. 

5 <i. Miseonri Coninromise. 

I b. Lttnyette's Visit. 

t a. Great Britain. 

i b. Florida. 

( c. ilouroe Doctrine. 

5 a. Protective Tariff. 
( b. Erie Canal, etc. 

a. Rotation in Office. 

b. Nullification. 

c. Blink of United Statea. 

d. 8p( cnlatiou. 

c. Indian Trou.'jfes. 
France. 

a. Crisis of 1837. 
h. Suhtreasory Bill. 
Canadian " Patriut War." 



<i. Pnited StKti s Bnnk. 

b. Sullrage umicultii's ( R. I.V 

c. Anli-laiit I)itiiciiltieg(N. y.; 
rf. Miign( lie Telegraph. 

e. The Mormons. 



War with Mexico (1848-47). 
Northwest Boundary. 
Wilmot Proviso. 
Discovery of Gold in Californii 



Compromise of IS-W. 
Cuba. 

n. Kansas-Nebraska BiU. 
6. Border Warfare. 

a. Mexico. 

b. Japan. 



11. Domestic Affairs. 
2. Political Parties. 
3. The South Secedes. 
4. Fort Sumter. 
War. 

S 1. Free States. 
I 2. Slave States. 



^ 



Ored Scott Decision. 
FiiRitive Slave Law. 
John Brown. 



EPOCH V.-THE CIVIL WAR (1861-1865) 

(LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION)! 
1861 

Rumors of a plan to assassinate Lincoln impelled him 
to come to Washington secretly. He was inaugurated 
March 4, 1861, surrounded by troops under General Scott. 

Condition of the Country. — All was now uncertainty. 
Southern officers in the army and navy of the United 
States were daily resigning and linking their fortunes 
with the Confederate cause. There was still, however, a 
strong Union sentiment in the South. Many prominent 
men in both sections hoped that war might be averted. 
The Federal authorities feared to act, lest they should 
precipitate civil strife. In striking contrast to this inde- 
cision was the marked energy of the new Confederate 
government. It was gathering troops, voting money and 
supplies, and rapidly preparing for the issue. 

1 Abrabam Lincoln was bom in Kentucbj^, February 12, 1809 ; died In Washington, 
April 15, 1SG5. His father was unable to read or write, and his own education consisted 
of one year's schooling. Hoping to better his fortune, the father moved to Indiana, 
the family floating down the Ohio on a raft. When nineteen yeai's of age the future 
President hired out at HO a month as a hand on a flatboat, and made a trip to New 
Orleans. On his return he accompanied the family to Illinois, driving the cattle on 
the journey. Having reached their destination, he helped them to build a cabin, and 
to split rails to inclose the farm. Ho was now, in succession, a flatboat hand, clerk, 
captain of a company of volunteers in the Black Hawk War, country storekeeper, 
postmaster, and surveyor; yet he managed to get a knowledge of law by borrowing 
books at an office before it closed at night, returning them at its opening in the morn- 
ing. On being admitted to the bar, he rapidly rose to distinction. At twenty-five he 
was sent to the legislature, and was thrice reelected. In 1846 he was elected to Con- 
gress, and served one term as representative. In 1858 he was candidate for senator 

249 



1861] 



CAPTURE OF FORT SUMTER 



251 



Capture of Fort Sumter (April 13). — Findmg that sup- 
plies were to be sent to Fort Sumter, General Peter G. T. 
Beanregard (bo're gard), who had command of the Con- 
federate troops at Charleston, called upon Major Ander- 




1 AKDMKNT OF FOET SUMTER. 



son to surrender. Upon his refusal, fire was opened from 
all the Confederate forts and batteries.^ This " strange 

a second time, against Stephen A.Douglas. The two rivals stumped the State to- 
gether, discussing great national questions. The debate, unrivaled for its statesman- 
sliip, logic, and wit, won for Lincoln a national reputation, hut he lost the election in 
the legislature. After his accession to the presidency, his history, like Washington's, 
is identified with that of his country. He was a tall, ungainly man, little versed in 
the refinements of society, but gifted by nature with great common sense, and every- 
where known as " Honest Abe." Kind, earnest, sympathetic, faithful, democratic, 
he was anxious only to servo his country. His wan, fatigued face and his bent form 
told of the cares ho bore and the grief he felt. His only relief was when, tossing aside 
for a moment the heavy load of responsibility, his face would light up with a humor- 
ous smile while he narrated some incident whose irresistible wit and aptness to the 
subject at hand convulsed his hearers, and rendered "Lincoln's stories" household 
words throughout the nation. 

J The first gun was fired at half-past four o'clock Friday morning, April 12, 1861, 
Anderson surrendered April 13 and marched out April 14. 




252 




258 



254 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 

contest between seventy men and seven thousand " lasted 
for thirty-four hours, no one being hurt on either side. 
The barracks having been set on fire by the shells, the 
garrison, worn out, suffocated, and half blinded, were 
forced to capitulate. They were allowed to retire with 
the honors of war, saluting their flag before hauling it 
down. 

The Effect of this event was electrical. It unified the 
North, and also the South. The war spirit swept over the 
country like wildfire. Party lines vanished. Many Union 
men in the South were borne into secession, while Repub- 
licans and Democi'ats 
in the North combined 
to support the govern- 
ment. Lincoln issued 
a call on the States for 
75,000 militia, to serve 
for three months. It 
was responded to by 
a greater number of 
men, and the Ameri- 
can flag, the symbol of 



,!>4;J»^ *ra^.»gr-'rT>«' 




CONFEDKKATK CAPITOI. AT KlCUMoM). 



Revolutionary glory 
and of national unity, was unfurled throughout the North. 
The military enthusiasm in the South was equally ardent. 
Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee, which 
had before hesitated, joined tho Confederacy. Virginia 
troops seized the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry 
and the navy yard near Norfolk. Troops from the ex- 
treme South were rapidly pushed into Virginia, and 
threatened Washington. The Sixth Massachusetts Regi- 
ment, hurrying to the defense of the national capital, was 
attacked in the streets of Baltimore, and several men 



THE WAR IN THE EAST 



255 



1861] 

were killed. This was the first bloodshed in the Civil War, 
and it occurred on April 19, the anniversary of Lexington 
and Concord. In May, Eichmond, Va., was made the Con- 
federate capital. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST 

Arlington Heights and Alexandria, opposite Washington, 
were seized (May 24) by the national troops. This pro- 
tected the capital from immediate danger of attack. Fort 
Monroe, a formidable fortification near the entrance to 
Chesapeake Bay, was now garrisoned by a heavy force 
under Greneral B. F. Butler.^ In an expedition made soon 




WAK IN THE EAST, 1861. 

after against Big Bethel, the troops fired into each other 
by mistake, and when they came to attack the Confederate 
defenses they were repulsed with loss. 

Western Virginia adhered to the Union, and was ulti- 
mately formed into a separate State. The Confederates, 

• At Hampton, whicli Lad been occuiiied by the Confederates, soTiie negroes -were 
captured who had been employed in building fortifications. Butler declared them 
" contraband of war," and this gave rise to the popular use of the term "contraband" 
to mean negro slaves who were set free by Federal soldiera. 



256 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 

however, occupied it in force. The Federals, under Gen- 
eral George B. McClellan, defeated them in several battles, 
wresting most of the region from their control. Shortly 
afterwards a Confederate force was scut into the Kanawha 
(ka naw'wa) valley ; but part of it was defeated by General 
Eosecrans at Caenifex Ferry, and the Confederates were 
soon forced to withdraw. Almost the only Union victories 
of this year were achieved in this part of Virginia. 

Battle of Bull Run (July 21).— The Northern people, 
seeing many regiments gathered at Washington, were 
impatient for an advance. The cry " On to Richmond ! " 
became too strong to be resisted. General Irvin McDowell, 
with the Army of the Potomac, moved to attack the main 
body of the Confederates, which was strongly posted, under 
Beauregard, at Bull Run. After a sharp conflict, the 
Confederate left was driven from its position. It was 
rallied, however, on the brigades of General T. J. Jackson * 
and others, on a plateau in the rear. While the Federal 
troops were struggling to drive them from this new posi- 
tion, at the crisis of the battle, several brigades, under 
Kirby Smith," Early, and others, coming upfi'om the west, 
successively struck the Union flank and finally drove it in 
confusion. The reti-eat became a panic-stricken rout, 
many of the fngitives never stopj)ing till they were safe 
at Alexandria and Arlington. 

' General Boo, as he rallied his men, sliontod: "There's .Tackson standing like a 
stone wall!" "From that time," says Draper, " the name lie had reeeived in a bap- 
tism of fire (lisi)laeed that ho had received in a baptism of water, and he was known as 
' Stonewall Jackson.' " 

- Jackson's and Smith's lirifjades formed part of General Joseph E. Johnston's 
command, which came from Winchester. General Patterson, with 11,(»00 men, had 
been left to watch Johnston and prevent his joiiiin^c I!eaiire.irar<I. Johnston was too 
shrewd for his antaironist, and, slipping away, reached l?ull IJiiii with fiiKM) men the 
day V>efore the hatth', while more, of his men .arrived Just at tlie. cM-isis of the struRgle. 
The nnndjcr of Union men who were actually cnj.'at:cd at Bull Run was about 18,000; 
the number of Confederates engaged, somewhat greater. 



1861] 



BULL RUN 



257 



The Effect of this defeat was momentous. At first the 
Northern people were chagrined and disheartened. Then 
came a renewed determination. They saw the true char- 
acter of the war, and no longer dreamed that the South 
could be easily overawed. They were to fight a brave 
people — Amei'icans, who were to be conquered only by a 
desperate struggle. Congress voted to enlist 500,000 men. 




SOLDIEKS' MOMMKNT, BATTLEFIELD OF BULL I'.UN. 

General McClellan, hero of the brilliant campaign in 
western Virginia, was appointed to the command of the 
Army of the Potomac, and soon after, upon General Scott's 
retirement, became general in chief of all the Federal 
armies. 

Balls Bluff (October 21).— About 2000 Federals, who 
had crossed the Potomac at Balls Bluff on a reconnoiter- 
ing expedition, were attacked by the Confederates and 
forced down the bluff to the river. Only about half their 
number succeeded in reaching the other bank.^ 

• Colonel Baker, United States senator from Oregon, was among the killed. 



258 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1861 



THE WAR IN THE WEST 

Missouri was largely Union, and did not secede; yet 
Governor Jackson of this State tried to carry it into the 
Confederacy, or at least to preserve an armed neutralitj^ 
Captain Lyon foiled this attempt. He saved the United 
States arsenal at St. Louis, and easily defeated the gov- 
ernor's troops. A few weeks later, however, Lyon, now 
General, found tbat he must either fight the superior 
forces of Generals McCulloch and Price, or else abandon 

the southern part of 




the State. At the 
head of about 6000, 
he attacked more 
than twice that 
number at Wilsons 
Creek (August 10). 
He fell, gallantly 
leading a charge, 
and his men were 
defeated. Soon aft- 
er, Lexington ' was 
forced to surrender, 
WAK IN THE WKST, 18C1. after a brave de- 

fense. But before long the Confederates were crowded 
south to Arkansas. 

Kentucky, like Missouri, did not secede, and tried to 
remain neutral. Soon both Confederate and Union 
troops were encam{)ed on her soil, and the State was 
ravaged by liostil*^ armies." 

1 Tliu CoiifeiUM'uU'H, in their liiiiil assault, fought bfliiiul a iiiovnblo breastwork 
coiuposed ot heiiip bales, which they rolh-d toward thi', fort as they atlvaiiced. 

'■i In all the border Htates atTairs wen^ in a most lamentable condition. The people 
were divided in opinion, and some enlisted in each army. As the tide of war surged to 



20 40 60 80 100 



1861] THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 259 
THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 

Early in the war Davis issued a proclamation offering 
to commission privateers.' In reply, Lincoln declared a 
blockade of the Southern ports. At that time there were 
but few efficient vessels on the Northern coast, and the 
entire Federal navy comprised only forty-two ships; but 
at the close of the year the navy numbered two hvmdred 
and sixty-four. 

Two joint naval and military expeditions were made 
during the year. The first captured the forts at Hatteras 
Inlet, N. C. The second took the forts at Poet Royal 
Entrance, S. C. Port Royal became a great depot for 
the Union fleet (map, p. 253). 

The Trent Affair, — Great Britain and France had ac- 
knowledged the Confederate States as belligerents, thus 
placing them on the same footing with the United States 
in respect to military operations. Having, therefore, 
great hopes of foreign aid, the Southern j^eople appointed 
Messrs. Mason and Slidell' commissioners to those coun- 
tries. Escaping through the blockading squadron, they 
took passage at Havana on the British steamer Trent. 
Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamer San Jacinto, 
intercepted the Trent, took off the Confederate envoys, 
and brought them back to the United States. This pro- 
duced intense excitement in England. Lincoln, however, 
promptly disavowed the act and returned the prisoners. 

and fro, armed bands swept through the country, plundering and murdering those 
who favored the opposite party. 

1 The Savannah was the first privateer which got to sea, but she was captured 
after having taken only one prize. The Petrel, another privateer, bore down upon the 
United States frigate St. Lawrctiee, which the captain mistook for a merchant ship; 
his vessel was simk by a single broadside of his formidable antagonist. The Beaure- 
gard also was captured, and the operations of other privateers were stopped ])y the 
blockade within a year. Thereafter Northern commerce was attacked by cruisers 
(p. 300). 



260 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 

General Review of the First Year of the War. — The 
Confederates had seized most of the forts and arsenals in 
the South, including Fort Sumter and the large arsenals 
at Hari)ers Ferry and near Norfolk. They had been suc- 
cessful in the two great battles of the yt'ar — Bull Run and 
Wilsons Creek ; also in several minor engagements. The 
Federals had saved Fort Pickens^ and Fort Monroe, and 
captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet and Port Royal. They 
had also gained several minor vietoi-ies. They had saved 
Missouri, Maryland, and western Virginia to the Union. 
Principally, however, they had thrown the whole South 
into a state of siege — the armies on the north and the 
west by land, and the navy on the east by sea, maintaining 
a vigilant blockade. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Bull Bun. — Schouler'B History of the United States, vol. vi. pp. 76-81. 

1862 

The Situation. — The Federal armies now numbered 
500,000 ; the Confederate, about 350,000. The Northern 
campaign of 186:2 had three main objects: (1) the opening 
of the Mississippi; (2) the blockade of the Southern ports, 
and (3) the capture of Richmond. 

THE WAR IN THE WEST 

West of the Appalachian Mountains the Confederates 
held a line of defense with strongly fortified posts at 
Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort Don'elson, Bowling Green, 
Mill Springs, and Cumberland Gap. The Federal army 
acted on the offensive, 

' This fort waR situated near Pensacola. Lieutenant Blcnimer, si^eing tliat an attack 
was aV»out to ho. made ui)on liiiu, transferred liis ineu tntm Kort McRae, an untoiialile 
position, to Fort Pickens, an almost iiupref^ahle fortitlcation, which he held untij 
reeuforceuients arrived. 



1862] 



THE WAE IN THE WEST 



261 



Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — Early in Feb- 
ruary, General Grant with an army and Flag Officer 
Foote with his ganboats advanced upon Fort Henry.' A 
bombardment (February 6) from the gunboats reduced the 
place in about an hour. The land troops were to cut off 
the retreat ; but as they did not arrive in time, the garri- 



lIlCllUldtl\ 

O H I Qi 




WAK IN TUB WEST, 1862. 

son escaped to Fort Donelson. The fleet now went back 
to the Ohio, and ascended the Cumberland, while Grant 
crossed to cooperate in an attack on Fort Donelson. The 
fight lasted three days.^ The fleet was repulsed by the 

1 Though Grant's movement was the first great blow at the Confederate line, there 
had been an earlier one of considerable importance. In January, General Thomas 
had advanced against Mill Springs, and, on the 19th, defeated the Confederate force 
near that place, with the loss of General Zollicoftor, a favorite Southern leader. 

2 For four nights of inclement winter weather, amid snow and sleet, with no tents, 
shelter, or lire, and many with no blankets, the hardy Western troops under Grant main- 
tained their position. The wounded suffered intensely, and numbers of them froze to 
death as they lay on the icy ground. 



262 THE CIVIL WAK [1862 

fire from the fort; but Grant, having been reenforced till 
he had nearly 30,000 men, outfought the Confederates. As 
he was about to make the final assault, the fort was sur- 
rendered * (February 16), with about 15,000 men.- 

Effect of these Victories. — Bowling Green and Columbus, 
the latter deemed almost impregnable, were now evacu- 
ated by the Confederates, while General BucU at once 
occupied Nashville with a Union army. The Confederates 
fell back to Corinth and Island No. 10,' and were reen- 
forced. A large Union army ascended the Tennessee to 
Pittsburg Landing. Grant was placed in command, and 
General Buell was ordered to join him. 

Battle of Shiloh (April 6, 7). — Generals Albert Sidney 
Johnston andBeam-egardled the Confederates from Corinth 
in an attempt to rout Grant's army before the arrival of 
Buell. On Sunday morning at daylight, moving out of the 
woods in line of battle, they suddenly fell on the Union 
camps, which had not been intrenched. The Federals 
slowly yielded, but for twelve hours obstinately disputed 
every inch of the way. At last, pushed to the very brink 
of the river, Grant massed his artillery, and gathered 
about it the fragments of regiments for a final stand. 
The Confederates, to meet them, had to cross a deep 
ravine, where, struggling through the mud and water, 
they melted away under the fire of cannon and musketry 

' When General Buckner, comniander of the fort, wrote to General (irant offering 
capitulation, Grant replied : " No term«ex<ept unconditional and ininiediate surnMider 
can be accepted. I propose to move immediately npon your works." This message 
was much quoted, and U. 8. Grant was often said to signify "Unconditional Sui^ 
render Grant." 

•i West of the Mississippi, about this time, General Curtis pushed General Price 
out of Missouri into Arkansas. The Confederates, by great exertion, increased their 
army to 20,000, (icucral Van Dorn now taking eomniaud. General ("urtis, in a des- 
perate battle, totally defeated him at Pea Riix-.e (.March 7, 8). Some four or f1v<' 
thousand Indians had joined the Confederate army, and took part in this battle. 

3 The islands in the Mississippi are numbered in order from the mouth of the Ohio 
to New Orleans. 



1862] 



THE WAR IN THE WEST 



2 as 



from above and the shells from the gunboats beyond. At 
the same time Buell's advance came shouting on the field. 
The tide of battle was already stayed. The Confederates 
fell back. They possessed, however, the substantial fruits 
of victory. They had taken the Union camps, many pris- 
oners, thirty flags, and immense stores ; but they had lost 
their commander, General Albert Sidney Johnston. 

The next morning the tide turned. Part of Buell's 
army had come, and fresh troops were poured on the 




UATTl.E i)K SllILoH. 



wearied Confederates. Beauregard, obstinately resisting, 
was driven from the field. He retreated, however, in 
good order, and, unmolested, returned to Corinth. 

General Halleck now assumed command, and by slow 
stages followed the Confederates. Beauregard, finding 
himself outnumbered, evacuated Corinth (May 30). 

Island No. lo. — The Confederates on Island No. 10 and 



264 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

the neighboring shore east of the river were bombarded 
by Fhig Officer Foote for three weeks with littlo effect. 
General Pope, crossing the Mississippi, took the batteries 
on the east bank, in the rear of the Confederate posi- 
tion. The garrison on Island Xo. 10 surrendered to Foote 
(April 7), but most of the Confederates were captured by 
Pope a few hours later. 

The Effects of tliese battles were soon fully apparent.' 
The Union gunboats moved down the river and (May 10) 
defeated the Confederate ironclad fleet. On the evacua- 
tion of Corinth, Fort Pillow was abandoned by the 
Confederates. The gunboats, proceeding, destroyed the 
Confederate flotilla in front of Memphis, and took posses- 
sion of that city. Kentucky and western Tennessee had 
been wrenched from the Confederacy. The Union army- 
now held a line running from Memphis through Corinth 
nearly to Chattanoo'ga, toward which point General Buell 
was steadily pushing his troops. 

Bragg's Expedition. — Generals Smith ^ and Bragg, of the 
Confederates, now took the offensive; they invaded Ken- 
tucky and held large parts of it for several weeks. Wlien 
Bragg began his invasion from Chattanooga, General 
Buell fell back to Nashville, and then hurried to reach the 
Ohio River ahead of the enemy. At Louisville ho was 
heavily reenforced, and soon moved out to give V)attle. 
At Perryville (October 8) a desperate battle was fought. 

I Besides the results here named, the concentration of troops at Corinth had 
absorbed the troops from the South. Thus New Orleans, as we shall see hereafter, fell 
an easy prey to Farragut (i>p. 266, 267). 

'^ General Halleclt having been called to Washin-jton as general in chief of the 
armies of the United States, General Grant was appointed to the command of this 
anny. 

3 Smith moved from Knoxville througti the Cumberland Gap, routed a Union force 
under General Manson at Richmond, Ky., inflicting a heavy loss, and tlien moved 
north as far as Cynthiaua. There he threatened to attack both Cincinnati and 
Louisville. 



1862] THE WAR IN THE WEST 265 

In the darkness, however, Bragg left the field, and, joined 
by Smith, soon retreated safely by way of Cumberland 
Gap, with wagon trains many miles long. 

Battles of luka and Corinth. — Every one of Grant's vet- 
erans who could possibly be spared had been sent north 
to help Buell. The Confederates Price and Van Dorn, 
taking advantage of the opportunity, were maneuvering 
to get possession of Corinth. Grant boldly sent Rosecrans 
to capture Price at luka, but after a severe conflict (Sep- 
tember 19) the latter escaped. Thereupon, the two Con- 
federate generals joined their forces and attacked Rose- 
crans in his intrenchments at Corinth (October 4). The 
Confederates exhibited brilliant courage, but were defeated 
with heavy loss and pursued forty miles. 

Battle of Murfreesboro (December 31, January 2). — 
Shortly after the battles of Corinth and Perry ville, Rose- 
crans superseded Buell, and concentrated his new forces 
at Nashville. Thence he marched to attack Bragg, who 
had established his army at Murfreesboro. Both generals 
formed the same plan^ for the approaching contest. As 
the Union left was crossing Stone River to attack the Con- 
federate right, the strong Confederate left fell heavily on 
the weak Union right, crushing it back on the Union 
center. Here Thomas held firm, and Rosecrans was 
enabled to establish a new line, at right angles with the 
old. Upon this new front the Confederates charged four 
times, but were driven back. The Union left, meanwhile, 
was recalled, and Rosecrans remained on the defensive. 
Two days after, Bragg attacked the Union left, but was 
repulsed, and soon retreated to Tullahoma. This was 

1 The plan was to mass the strength on the left, and with that to fall upon and 
crush the enemy's right. The advantage lay with the army which stru( k first. Bragg 
secured tlie initiative, and Rosecrans's only course was to give up aU thought of an 
attack and endeavor to save Ms right from a rout. 

B. HIST. U. 8. — 16 



266 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

one of the bloodiest contests of the war, the loss being 
about one fourth of the number engaged. Its effect was 
to reduce Bragg's force from an offensive to a defensive 
attitude. 

First Vicksburg Expedition. — While Rosecrans was 
moving against Bragg, an expedition against Vicksburg 
had been planned by Grant. But, by a brilliant cavalry 
dash, Van Dorn destroyed Grant's depot of supplies at 
Holly Spkings, and thus spoiled the plan. Meanwhile, 
Sherman, under Grant's orders, descended the Mississippi 
to cooperate in the expedition. He made an attack at 
Chickasaw Bluff, north of Vicksburg; but after suffering 
a bloody repulse, and learning of Grant's misfortune, he 
fell back. This campaign was closed by the capture of 
Arkansas Post (January 11, 1863) by a combined army 
and naval force. 

THE war on the SEA AND ON THE COAST 

Capture of New Orleans (April 25). — The effort to open 
the Mississippi was not confined to the North. Early in 
the spring Flag Officer Farragut, with a fleet of over forty 
vessels, carrying a laud force under General Butler, at- 
tempted the capture of New Orleans. The mortar boats, 
dressed out with leafy branches to render them indistin- 
guishable from the green woods, were anchored along the 
bank of the river below the city, and threw thirteen-inch 
shells into Forts Jackson and St. Philip for six days and 
nights. Farragut then boldly resolved to carry the fleet 
past these defenses of New Orleans. At about three 
o'clock in the morning (April 24) the gunboats* advanced, 
and poured grape and canister into the forts at short 

• Tbe vessels were made partly ironcl.ad by looping cliain cables in two layers over 
tbeir sides, and their engines were protected by bags of sand, coal, etc. 



1862] 



THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 



267 



range, receiving in return heavy volleys from the forts 
and batteries on shore. After running a fearful gantlet 
of shot, shell, and the flames of fire-rafts, 
they next began a desperate struggle 
with the Confederate fleet of fifteen 
vessels, all of which were de- 
stroyed or captured. The 
Union fleet then steamed 
up to New Orleans,^ 
which lay helpless 
der the Union guns 
The forts, being 




now threatened in 
the rear by the army, 
soon surrendered, and 
New Orleans was occupied 
by Greneral Butler. Flag Of- 
ficer Farragut afterwards ascend- 
ed the river, and, running past the 
batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above. 

The Atlantic Coast. — Burnside's expedition against 
Roanoke Island was an important step toward the enforce- 
ment of the blockade. The Confederate forts were- cap- 

1 steamers, sailing ships, vast quantities of cotton, etc., were now burned to pre- 
vent their falling into Federal hands. Pollard says : "No sooner had the Federal fleet 
turned the point and come within sight of the city, than the worlr of destruction com- 
menced. Vast columns of smoke darkened the face of heaven aud obscured the noon- 
day sun; for five miles along the levee fierce flames darted through the lurid atmos- 
phere. Great ships and steamers wrapped in fire floated down the river, threatening 
the Federal vessels with destruction. Fifteen thousand bales of cottoa, worth one 
million and a half of dollars, were consumed. About a dozen large river eteamboats. 



268 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

tured and the ships destroyed.' Then Newbern, EUza- 
beth City, aud Fort Macon, at the entrance to Beaufort 
(bo'furt) harbor, were taken. Thus most of the North 
Carolina coast, with its intricate network of water com- 
munication, fell into Union hands. 

Port Eoyal, after its capture (1861), became the base 
of operations against Florida and Georgia, resulting in 
the capture of several coast towns. Fort Pulaski, also, 
was reduced after a severe bombardment, and thus the 
port of Savannah was closed. 

At the end of the year every city of the Atlantic sea- 
coast, except Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington, was 
held by the Federal armies. 

The Merrimac and the Monitor. — Early in the afternoon 
of March 8 the long-dreaded ironclad Merrimac " steamed 
from Norfolk into Hampton Eoads. Steering directly 
for the Federal sloop of war Ciiiuherland, whose terrific 
broadsides glanced harmlessly "like so many peas" from 
the Merrlmac's iron roof, she struck the Cumberland 
squarely with her iron beak, making a large hole in the 
ship's side, and thus sinking her." Thus warned, the cap- 
tain of the frigate Congress ran his vessel ashore; but the 
Merrimac fired sheUs into the frigate till the helpless 

twelve or fifteen sliipa, a RT'^nt floating battery, several luiflnislied {runl)oat8, the iiu- 
meuHC ram Mimslnsipjn, aud the docks on the otlier side of tlie river were all embraced 
in tlie fiery Kaerifice." 

> Roanoke Iwland, the Rcene of Raleigli's colonization sclieme (p. 4:!), was the key 
to the rear defenses of Norfolk. "It unlocked two Bounds, eiBht rivers, four canals, 
and two railroads." It afforded a convenient station for ships, and exposed a large 
country to attack. 

i! When tlio United States navy yard near Norfolk, Va., was given up (p. 254), 
the steam frigate Merrimac, the finest in the service, was scuttled. The Confed- 
erateJi afterwards raised tliis vessel, razeed the deck, added an iron prow and a sloping 
iron-plated roof, and rechristened tbe vessel the Virffinia. The ship was commanded 
by Commodore Franklin Buchanan, a superior naval ofticer. 

3 As the Cumberland sank, the crew continiu-fl to work their gUTis until tlie vessel 
plunged beneath the sea. Her flag was never struck, but floated above the water from 
the masthead after she had gone down. 



1862] THE MERRIMAO AND THE MONITOR 269 

crew were forced to surrender. At sunset the Merrimac 
returned to Norfolk, awaiting, the next day, au easy vic- 
tory over ^the rest of the Union fleet. That night the 
Monitor'^ arrived in Hampton Roads and prepared to 
meet her giant adversary. Early in the morning the 
Merrimac moved toward a Union steam frigate. Sud- 
denly the little Monitor darted out and hurled at the mon- 
ster two 166-pound balls. Startled by the appearance 




MEKIilMAC AND MONITOR. 

of this unexpected antagonist, the Merrimac poured 
in a broadside such as had destroyed the Congress, but 
the balls rattled harmlessly off the Monitofs turret and 
deck. Thus began the battle of the iron ships — the 
first of the kind in the world. Close against each other, 

1 This "Yankee cheese-1)ox," as it ■was nicknamed at the time, was the invention of 
Captain Ericsson. It was a hull, with the deck a few inches ahove the water, and in 
the center a strong round tower made to revolve slowly by steam power, thus turning 
in any direction the two large guns it contained. The upper part of the hull, which 
was exposed to the enemy's tire, projected several feet beyond the lower part, and was 
made of thick white oak, covered with iron plating five inches thick on the sides and 
one inch on deck. 



270 TfiE CIVIL WAR [18C2 

iron rasping on iron, they exchanged their heaviest shots. 
Five times the Merrimac tried to run down the Monitor, 
but her huge beak only grated over the iron deck, while 
the Monitor glided out unharmed. Despairing of doing 
injury to her doughty antagonist, the Merrimac now 
steamed back to Norfolk.' 

The Effect of this contest can hardly be overestimated. 
Had the Merrimac triumphed, aided by other iron vessels 
then being prepared by the Confederacy, she might have 
destroyed the rest of the Union fleet in Hampton Roads, 
prevented the Peninsular campaign (see below), swept 
through the shipping at New York, sailed along the coast 
and broken up the blockade, opened the way for foreign 
supplies, made an egress for cotton, and perhaps secured 
the recognition of the Confederacy by European nations. 
On this battle hinged the fate of the war. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST 

The Peninsular Campaign. — Richmond was the objec- 
tive point in the East. After long delays, it was decided 
to make the advance by way of the peninsula between the 
York and James rivers ; and the Army of the Potomac, 
under McClellan, was carried in transports down the Chesa- 
peake from Washington.- Landing at Fort Monroe about 
90,000 strong (April 4 and later), they slowly marched 
toward Yorktown. 

• As the Merrimac drew oflf, she hurled a last shot, which, striking the Monitor's pilots 
house, broke a bar of iron nine by twelve inches, seriously injuring the eyes of the gal- 
lant commander, Lieutenant Wordeu, who was at that moment looking out through a 
narrow slit and directing the movements of his ship. 

2 Previous to this (March 10) McClellan made an advance toward Manassas, where 
the Confederates had remained intrentthed since McDoweil's defeat. The fortifica- 
tions, -which were evacuated on his approach, were found to be quite insigniticant, 
and to be mounted partly with " Quaker guns," I.e. logs shaped and painted to imitate 
aotillery. 



1862] 



THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 



271 




'HviliuifiKtoni;: 



Yorktown and Williamshurg. — At Yorktown General Ma- 
gruder maintained so bold a front along a line thirteen 
miles in length that McClellan was brought to a stop. 
Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, and a siege 
was begun. The garrison, having delayed McClellan a 
month, withdrew just as he was ready to open fire.^ When 
the Confederate movement was discovered, a vigorous 
pursuit was com- 
menced. At Wil- 
liamsburg a long 
fight took place 
with the Confed- 
erate rear guard, 
placed there by 
General Joseph E. 
Johnston to gain 
time for the bag- 
gage train (May 
5). The town 
was evacuated at 
night, and Mc- 
Clellan gradually 
moved to within 
seven miles of 
Richmond. 

Biclimond Threatened. — There was a great panic in Rich- 
mond, and the Confederate Congress hastily adjourned, in 
expectation of an immediate attack. But a Confederate 
force at Hanover Court House now threatened McClel- 




?'Baitiui()W.i?<-.V''' 



■■''■'■('/, ^,''e;j.}j Ft. Monroe 

I'lJthJ.. NoiTolk 



WAK IN THE EAST, 1862. 



• On the evacuation of Yorktown,— the Confederate forces being concentrated foi 
the defense of Richmond, — Norfolk was abandoned, the navy yard burned, and the 
Merrimac, the pride of the South, blown up. United States troops from Fort Monroe 
took possession of the city, and gunboats sailed up the James River almost to Rich- 
mond. At Fort Darling a plunging fire from the bluff forbade further advance. 



272 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

lau's rear, and also liis communications witli General 
McDowell, who, with 30,000 men, was at Fredericksburg, 
preparing; to join him. McClellan sent part of his army, 
under General Fitz John Porter, to capture Hanover Court 
House. By the time this was done, however, he learned 
that McDowell's army had been ordered away on other 
duty. This change in the Union plan was caused by 

Jackson^s Shenaiido'ah Campaign. — General Stonewall 
Jackson had been ordered to move down the Shenandoah 
valley and threaten Washington. The Union troops 
under General Banks fell back before his advance, and by 
tremendous exertion succeeded in escaping across the 
Potomac. Great was the c.onsternation in "Washington. 
The President took military possession of the railroads. 
The governors of the Northern States were called upon to 
send troops for the defense of the capital. Fremont at 
Franklin, Banks at Williamsport, and McDowell at Fred- 
ericksburg were ordered to capture Jackson. It was high 
time for this dashing leader to be alarmed. He rapidly 
retreated, destroying bridges as he passed. Fremont 
brought him to bay at Cross Keys (June 8), but was 
hurled off. Shields struck at him at Port Republic^ the 
next day, but was driven back five miles, and Jackson 
then quietly left the Shenandoah valley. With 15,000 men, 
Jackson had absorbed the attention of three major gen- 
erals and 60,000 men, prevented McDowell's junction with 
McClellan, alarmed Washington, and saved Richmond. 

Battle of Fair Oaks (May 31, June 1). — Meanwhile 

1 When a small Federal force captured the bridge over the Shenandoah at Port 
Republic (June 8), Jacksou and liis staff wore cut oft" from his army. It is said that 
"he rode toward the bridge, and, rising in his stirrups, calle<l sternly to the Federal 
officer commanding the artillery i)laeed to sweep it: ' WTio ordered you to post that 
gun there, sir t Bring it over here I ' The bewildered oflficer bowed, limbered up liis 
piece, and prepared to move. Jackson and his start' seized the lucky moment and 
daslied acroas the bridge before the gun could be brought to bear upon them." 



1862] THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 273 

McClellan had pushed his left wing across the Chicka- 
hominy. But a terrible storm flooded the swanips and 
converted the small stream into a broad river. General 
Johnston seized the opportunity to fall with tremendous 
force upon the exposed wing; but General Sumner, 
throwing his men across the tottering bridges over the 
Chickahominy, checked the column which was trying to 
seize the bridges and thus separate the two portions of 
the army. General Johnston was severely wounded. 
The next day the Confederates renewed the attack, but 
were repulsed in great disorder 

The Union Army Checked. — General Lee,* who now took 
direct command of the Confederate army, was anxious to 
assume the offensive. General Stuart led off (June 12) 
with a bold cavalry raid, in which he seized and burned 
supplies along the railroad in McClellan's rear, made the 
entire circuit of the Union army, and returned to Rich- 
mond in safety. McClellan also meditated an advance, 
and Hooker's division pushed its pickets within sight of 
the Richmond steeples. But now Stonewall Jackson 
appeared near Hanover Court House and threatened the 
Union communications with York River. There was no 
longer any thought of moving on Richmond. McClellan 

1 Robert Edward Lee was bom at Stratford, Va., 1807 ; died at Lexington, Va., 1870. 
His fatlier was the celebrated Henry Lee, "Light-horse Harry" of Revolutionary 
fame. Robert early showed a love for military life, and during Ms West Point course 
was devoted to his studies. In the Mexican war he was Scott's chief engineer, and 
was thrice bre vetted for his services. When Virginia seceded he threw in his fortunes 
with his native State, although Scott had intimated his intention of nominating him as 
his successor. Lee was immediately appointed major general of the Virginia forces, 
and was soon after designated to fortify Richmond. His wonderful success in the 
Seven-Days fight made " Uncle Robert," as he was familiarly called, the most trusted 
of the Confederate leaders. For three years he baffled every attempt to take Rich- 
mond, which fell only with the government of which it was the capital and the army 
and general that were its defense. General Lee was handsome in face and figure, a 
graceful rider, grave and silent in deportment —Just the bearing to captivate a soldier ; 
while his deep piety, truth, sincerity, and honesty won the hearts of all. 



1862] 



THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 



271 



resolved to change his base of supply from the York 
River to the Jaraes, involving a dangerous flank move- 
ment to his left. 

The Seven Bays'* Battles. — Before this flank movement 
began, Lee, massing his strength on his left, fell upon the 
Union right at Mechanicsville (June 26), but was re- 
pulsed. While the Union army was marching from its 
old position toward the James River, Lee attacked it on 
successive days at Gaines Mill, Savages Station, and 
Feaysers Farm ; 



but in each case 

the Federals held 

their ground until 

they were ready 

to march on. At 

Malvern Hill 

they took position 

on an elevated 

plateau rising in 

the form of an 

amphitheater, on whose sloping sides were arranged tier 

upon tier of batteries, with gunboats protecting the left. 

Here Lee received so bloody a check (July 1) that he 

pressed the pursuit no farther. The Union troops retired 

undisturbed to Harrisons Landing. 

The Effect of this campaign was a triumph for the Con- 
federates. The Union retreat had been conducted with 
skill, the troops had shown great bravery and steadiness, 
the repulse at Malvern Hill was decided, and Lee had lost 
fully 20,000 men; yet the siege of Richmond had been 
raised, 16,000 of McClellan's men killed, wounded, or cap- 
tured, and immense stores taken or destroyed; and the 
Union army was now cooped up on the James River, under 




GArNES MILL. 



276 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

the protection of the gunboats. The discouragement in 
the North was as great as after the battle of Bull Run. 
Lincoln called for a levy of 300,000 troops. 

Campaign against Pope. — The forces near Washington 
were now united under the command of General Pope. 
McClellan was directed to transport his army to Acqui'a 
Creek, so that it might be united with General Pope's. 
Lee, relieved from all fear for Richmond, immediately 
massed his troops against Pope to crush liim before the 
Army of the Potomac could arrive.' Pope being held in 
check by the main army in front, General Jackson was sent 
around Pope's i-ight wing to flank him (August 26). Gen- 
eral Pope, seeing an opportunity while Lee's army was thus 
divided to cut it up in detail, turned upon Jackson. But 
his plans failed, and instead of "bagging" Jackson's divi- 
sion, he was compelled, before all his rei'nforcements had 
arrived, to fight the entire Confederate army on the old 
battlefield of Bull Run. Exhausted, cut off from supplies, 
and overwhelmed by numbers, the shattered remains of 
the Union forces were glad to take refuge within the 
fortifications of Washington." 

Tlte Effect. — In this brief campaign the Union army lost 
heavily in men, munitions, and supplies. The capital had 
not been m such ])eril since the war began. 

Invasion of Maryland. — Flushed with success, Lee now 
crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland,"* hoping to 

1 In tbo nioantiine Jackson attackoil Banks at Cedar Mountain (August !>), and 
defeated him after a bloody battle, but, unable to maintain his position, fell back on 
Lee's advanciuf^ army. Pope, seeing th(; fearful odds against which he was to contend, 
took post behind the Uai)pahau'noek. 

-' During the pursuit by Lee's forces an engagement took place at Ciiantii-'ly (Sep- 
tember 1). It cost the Union army two able otTicers, Generals Stevens and Kearny. 
The latter especially was devotedly loved by his soldiei-s. On the battlefleld, bran- 
dishing his .sword in his only hand and taking the reins in his teeth, he had often 
led them in the ir.ost desperate and irresistible cliarges. 

3 This was September 0, the very day that Bragg entered Kentucky on his greatraid. 



1862] INVASION OP MARYLAND 277 

secure volunteers there. McClellan, who had resumed 
command of all the troops near Washington, set out in 
pursuit. On the way he found a copy of Lee's order of 
march, and learned from this that Lee had divided his 
forces, sending part of them to take Harpers Ferry.' 
Overtaking the Confederate rear at South Mountain and 
forcing the passes, the Union army poured into the valley 
beyond. 

Battle of Antietam (September 17). — Lee fell back west 
of Antietam (an te'tam) Creek, and sent off couriers to 
hasten the return of his troops at Harpers Ferry. Fortu- 
nately for him, McClellan delayed his attack a day, and 
in the meantime Jackson arrived. The Union army 
was over 80,000 strong, and the Confederate but half that 
number. The Union right, under Hooker, advanced im- 
petuously, but was repulsed. The struggle was long and 
obstinate. The Union left, under Burnside, advanced too 
late to relieve the pressure on the right. Night ended this 
bloody fight. The morning found neither commander 
ready to assail his opponent. That night Lee retired un- 
molested across the Potomac. Six weeks after, the Union 
army also crossed into Virginia. 

The Effect of this indecisive battle was that of a Union 
victory. The North was saved from invasion, and Wash- 
ington from any danger of attack. Lincoln now issued a 
proclamation to the effect that on the following January 1 
he would declare freedom to the slaves in all States and 
parts of States then in arms against the Union.^ 

1 These troops, 25,000 strong, were under Jackson. That redoubtable leader quickly 
carried the heights which overlook Harpers Ferry, forced Colonel Miles, with 11,000 
men, to surrender, and then hastened back to take part in the approaching contest on 
the Antietam. 

- Lincoln prepared the original draft in the July preceding, when the Union forces 
were in the midst of reverses. Carpenter repeats President Lincoln's words thus : " I 
put the draft of the proclamation aside, waiting for a victory. Well, the next news we 



278 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

Battle of Fredericksburg. — General dissatisfaction being 
expressed at the slowness with which McClellan pursued 
the retreating army, Greneral Burnside was appointed his 
successor. Crossing the Rappahannock on pontoon 
bridges at Fredericksburg, he stormed the works in the 
rear of the town (December 13). The Confederates, in- 
trenched behind a long stone wall ' and on heights crowned 
with artillery, easily repulsed the repeated assaults of the 
Union troops. Night mercifully put an end to the fruit- 
less sacrifice. The Federal army drew back into the city, 
and two nights after passed quietly across the bridges to 
their old camping ground. 

General Review of the Second Year of the War. — The 
Confederates had gained the victories of Jackson in the 
Shenandoah valley; of Lee in the Peninsular campaign 
and against Pope; Bragg's great raid in Kentucky; and 
the battles of Fredericksburg and Chickasaw Blutf. 

The Federals had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, 
Macon, Jackson, St. Philip, and Island No. 10 ; had opened 

had waa of Pope's disaster at Bull Run. Things looked darker than ever. Finally 
came the week of the battle of Antictam. I determined to wait no longer. The news 
came, I think, on Wednesday, that the advantage was on our side. I was then staying 
at the Soldiers' Home. Here I tinished writing the second di-aft of the proclamation ; 
came up on Saturday ; called the Cabinet together to hear it; and it was published the 
following Monday. I made a solemn vow before God, thai if General Lee tvas driven 
back from Man/laud I would crown the result by the declaration of freedom to the slaves." 
' Sheltered behind this stone wall at the base of Marycs Heights, the Confederates 
poured a withering lire on their assailants. Six brigades of Federals, Hancock's and 
French's divisions, made the assault with heroic valor, winning much glory even in 
defeat. Under Hancock, the brigades of Zook, Meagher, and Caldwell achieved equal 
distinction with cruel losses. Of the charge of Meagher's Irish brigade, the London 
Times correspondent, an eyewitness, wrote : " Never at Fontenoy, at Albuera, or 
at Waterloo was more uudoubt<'.d courage displayed by the sons of Erin than during 
those six frantic dashes which they directed against the almost impregnable position 
of their foe. That any mortal men could have carried the position, defended as it was. 
It seems idle to believe. But the bodies which lie in dense masses within forty yards 
of the muzzles of Colonel Walton's guns are the best evidence what manner of men 
they were who pressed on to death with the dauntlessness of a race which has gained 
glory on a thousand battledelds, and never more richly deserved it than at the foot of 
Maryes HeightB, December 13, 1862." 



1862] THE SIOUX WAR 279 

the Mississippi to Vicksburg; occupied New Orleans, 
Roanoke Island, Newbern, Yorktown, Norfolk, and Mem- 
phis ; gained the battles of Pea Ridge, Williamsburg, Fair 
Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, Perry ville, luka, Corinth, 
and Murfreesboro; and checked the career of the Merrimac. 
The marked successes were mainly in the West and along 
the coast ; while in Virginia, as yet, defeats had followed 
victories so soon as to hide their memory. 

The Sioux War. — In the midst of this civil strife the 
Sioux (soo) Indians became dissatisfied with the Indian 
traders, and over the nonpayment of money due them. 
Bands of warriors under Little Crow and other chiefs 
perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, and 
Dakota. Over 700 whites were slain and many thousands 
driven from their homes. Colonel Sibley routed the sav- 
ages and took 500 prisoners. Thirty-nine were hanged on 
one scaffold at Mankato, Minn. 

COLLATERAL READING 

The Peninsular Campaign. — Scliouler's History of the United States, vol. vi. pp. 
188-214. 

1863 

The Situation. — The plan of the war in 1863 was the 
same as in the preceding year, but included also the occu- 
pation of Tennessee. The Federal army was about 700,000 
strong ; the Confederate not more than half that number. 
The Emancipation Proclamation was issued at the open- 
ing of the year. 

THE WAR IN THE WEST 

The Second Expedition against Vicksburg. — Grant con- 
tinued his great task of opening the Mississippi. After 
several weeks of fruitless effort against Vicksburg upon 



280 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1863 



the north, he marched down the west side of the river, 
while the gunboats, running the batteries,' passed below 
the city and ferried the army across. Hastening forward, 
he defeated part of General Pemberton's army at Port 

Gibson (May 1). Learning 
that General Joseph E. 
Johnston was coming to 
Pemberton's assistance, he 
I'apidly pushed between 
them, and defeated John- 
ston at Jackson (May 14). 
Then, turning to the west, 
he drove Pemberton from 
his position at Champion 
Hills (May 1(5) and at Big 
Black River (May 17), and 
in twenty days after cross- 
ing the Mississippi shut up 
Pemberton's army within 
the works at Vicksburg. 
Two desperate assaults 
upon these having failed, the Union troops threw up in- 
trenchments and began a siege.'^ The garrison, worn out 
by forty-seven days of toil in the trenches, surrendered on 
the 4th of July. 

The Effect. — This campaign cost the Confederates the 

1 The runiiinf; of tho batteries with transporta was considered so hazardous that the 
officers would not order their crews to take tlie risk, but caUed lor volunteers. So many 
privates offered tliat they were compelhid to draw lots. The gantlet of batteries ex- 
tended fourteen niih^s. The first gunboat crept silently down in the sliadow of the 
trees which lined the bank. The Confederates at Vicksburg, discovering the move- 
ment, kindled bonfires, which lighted up the whole scene and made the other vessels 
a fair target for their gunners. 

* Mines and countermines were now dug. Not one of the garrison couid 8how his 
head at)Ove the works without l)eing i>icked olT by the watchful riflemen A hat held 
above a porthole in two minutes was pierced with fifteen balls. Shel.s reached all 
parts of the city, and the inhabitants burrowed in caves to escape the iron stonu. 




U lU CO 30 40 



WAK IS THE WEST, 1863. 



18G3] 



THE WAR IN THE WEST 



281 



cities of Vicksburg and Jackson, 37,000 prisoners, 10,000 
killed and wounded, and immense stores. 

Four days after the fall of Vicksburg, Port Hudson, 
which had been besieged by General Banks for many 
weeks, surrendered. The Mississippi was now open to the 
Gulf, and the Confederacy was cut in twain/ One great 
object of the North was accomplished. 



THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 

Rosecrans, after the battle of Murfreesboro, made no 
forward movement until June." With 60,000 men he then 
marched against Bragg, and 



in two I'rilliant campaigns 
maneuvered him out of Tul- 
lahoma and (Sept. 8) out of 
Chattanooga. Rosecrans 
pushed on after Bragg, who 
was in full retreat. Bragg, 
however, having received 
powerful reenf orcein ents, 
turned upon his pursuers 
so suddenly that they nar- 
rowly escaped being cut 
up in detail while scattered 
over a distance of forty miles 



r 



I E H M L S S E E 




1 6 i) 10 



VICINITY OF CHATTANOOGA. 

The Union forces rapidly 
concentrated, and the two armies met on the Chickamauga 

'Thereafter the operations west of the river wore of minor importance. In Au- 
gust, Quantrell, a noted guerrilla, entered Lawrence, Kan., with 300 men, plundered 
the bank, burned houses, murdered 140 persons, and escaped before a sutficient force 
could be gathered to oppose him. This created greater excitement than many liattles. 

2 One objection which Rosecrans opposed to a forward movement was hia inferiority 
in cavalry. This was removed in Julj-, when General John H. Morgan, with about 2500 
Confederate cavalry, crossed the Ohio River into Indiana, swept around Cincinnati, 
and struck the river agam opposite West Virginia. During his entire raid he Tvaa 
harassed by militia. He was now overtaken bj' his pursuers, while gunboats in the 
river prevented his crossing. Nearly the entire force was captured. Morgan 
B. HIST. u. 8.— 17 



282 THE CIVIL WAR [1803 

Battle of Chickamauga (September 19, 20).— The first day's 
fight was inconclusive. About noon of the second day, 
through a mistaken order, a gap was left in the Federal 
line, already weakened from the movement of troops to 
help the left wing, then hard pressed. Longstreet, who was 
moving forward to attack the Federal right with eight 
brigade^, swept through the gap and drove most of the 
Federal right and center from the field. The rushing 
crowd of fugitives bore Rosecrans himself away. In this 
crisis of the battle all depended on the left, under Thomas. 
If that yielded, the army would be utterly routed. All 
through the long afternoon the entire Confederate army 
surged against it. But Thomas held fast.^ At night he 
deliberately withdrew to Rossville, and the next night to 
Chattanooga. The Union army, liowever, defeated in the 
field, was now shut up in its intrenchments. Bragg held 
the hills near the city, and cut off its principal communi- 
cations. The garrison was threatened with starvation. 

Battle of Ckattanooga (November 24, 25). — Grant, hav- 
ing been appointed to command the Mississippi Division, 
hurried to Chattanooga.^ Affairs soon wore a different look. 
Hooker, who had come with two corps from the Army 
of the Potomac,^ helped to reestablish communications. 
Sherman's army, on its way from Vicksburg, hastened by 
forced marches the last 200 miles of its journey. Thomas 
made a dash and seized Orchard Knob (November 23). 

escaped, but was finally taken and confined in the penitentiary at Columbus. Foiu^ 
months afterward he broke jail and reached the Southern lines in safety. 

1 Thouias was thenceforth styled the " Rock of Chickamauga." He was in com- 
mand of men as brave as himself. 

2 Rosecrans was now relieved, and Thomas put in his place. Grant, afraid that 
Thomas might surrender before he could arrive, telegraphed him to hold fast. The 
characteristic reply was: "We will hold the town till we starve." 

3 Over 20,000 strong, they were carried by rail from the Rapldan in Virginia to 
Stevenson in Alabama, 1102 miles, in seven days. The Confederates did not know of 
the movement until several days after it had commenced. 



1863] 



BATTLE OF CHATTANOOGA 



283 



The following day Hooker, advancing from the west, 
easily fought his way around the north end of Lookout 
Mountain,^ whereupon the Confederates abandoned their 
impregnable position on the summit.^ The next day 
Hooker advanced on the south of Missionary Ridge. 
Sherman had been heavily pounding away on the north- 
ern flank. Grant, from his position on Orchard Knob, 




FIGHTING FOR THIC CUKST OF Mli^SIONAKY RIDGE. 

thinking that the Confederate line in front was being 
weakened to repel these attacks on the flanks, felt that 
the critical moment had come, and launched Thomas's 

1 Through the inist that enveloped the mountain, the watchers below caught only 
glimpses of this far-famed "battle above the clouds." 

2 November 24, the Confederate left rested ou Lookout Mountain, there 2400 feet 
high; the right, along Missionary Ridge — so called because, many years ago. Chris- 
tian missionaries had Indian schools upon it ; and the center, in the valley be- 
tween. November 25, their army simply occupied Missionary Ridge in front of 
Grant at Orchard Knob. 



284 THE CIVIL WAU [1863 

troops on its center, the orders being to take the rifle pits 
at the foot of Missionary Ridge. These were carried, but 
were found to be untenable on account of the batteries on 
the crest, so the men swept on up the ascent without 
waiting for further orders. Up they went, over rocks 
and chasms, all lines broken, the flags far ahead, each 
surrounded by a group of the bravest. Heedless of the 
tempest hurled upon them, they surmounted the crest, 
captured the guns, and turned them on the retreating foe. 
That night the Union camp fires, glistening along the 
heights abont Chattanooga, proclaimed the success of 
this the most brilliant of Grant's achievements and the 
most picturesque of the battles of the war. 

The secure possession of Chattanooga by the Union 
forces gave control of East Tennessee ^ and opened the 
way to the heart of the Confederacy. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST 

Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2, 3). — Burnside, after 
the defeat at Fredericksburg, was succeeded by General 
Hookei-, early in the year 1863. A temporary reduction 
of Lee's force, leaving Lee only 60,000 to oppose to the 
Potomac Army of over 100,000, offered a favorable oppor- 
tunity for an attack. Accordingly, while Sedgwick was 
left to attack Fredericksburg, the main body of Hooker's 
army crossed the Rappahannock some miles above, and 

1 Burnside, ex-comniiiiKlor of the Army of tho Potoinac, liud born noiit into KastTcn- 
nossoc, when; lie <'aptiireilKNO.\viLLi; (8cptt'iiil)er2). While Uragg was besiefriiijr Chat- 
tanooga, the Confederate President, Davis, visited him, and, tliinlving ChattanooKa was 
Htire to be ; aptiircd, sent Lnnfj^strect witli liis corps to inov<^ ajrainst Uurnside. Lomk- 
street slnit up Burnsido's force in tho works at Knox villc, and made a despenif e assault 
(November 20), wliich was as heroically repulsed. Meanwhili^ Grant, immediately 
after his splendid triumph at Chattanooga, ordered Shernian's troops over terrible 
roads too miles to Buniside's relief. On their approach, Longstreet withdrew (Docem- 
ber 4) and retreated toward Virginia. 



1863] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST 



285 



took position in the Wilderness, near Chancellors ville. 
Lee, relying on the dense woods to conceal his movements, 
risked the perilous plan of dividing his army in the 
presence of a superior enemy. While he remained in 
front, Jackson, by a detour of fifteen miles, got to the 
rear with 20,000 men, 
and, suddenly bursting 
out of the dense woods, 
routed the Union right. 
That night Hooker 
took a new position ; 
but, by constant at- 
tacks through the next 
day, Lee gradually 
forced the Union line 
from the field of battle. 
Meanwhile Sedgwick 
had crossed the Rap- 
pahannock, taken Fred- 
eiMcksburg, and made war in the east, ises. 

a diversion in Lee's rear. But after severe fighting he was 
compelled to recross the river. Hooker also decided to 
recross, and did so unmolested. The Army of the Potomac 
was soon back on its old camping ground opposite Fred- 
ericksburg.' 

Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — Lee, encouraged 
by his success, now determined to carry the war into 
Maryland and Pennsylvania. With the finest army 
the South had ever sent forth, the flower of her troops, 




1 In this battle the South was called to mourn the death of stonewall Jackson, 
whose magic name was worth to its cause more than an army. In the evening after 
his successful onslaught upon the flank of the Union line, while riding back to camp 
from a reconnoissance at the front, he was tired upon and mortally wounded by his 
own men, who mistook his escort for Federal cavalry. 



'2Hb THE CIVIL WAR [ISeS 

carefully equipped and confident of success,* he rapidly 
moved into the Shenandoah valley, crossed the Potomac, 
and advanced into Pennsylvania. The Union army fol- 
lowed a little farther east. 

Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-:]).— First ])ai/.— The 
Confederate advance unexpectedly met the Union cavalry 
near Gettysburg." Reenforcements came up on both 
sides; but the Federal troops were finally forced back, 
and, becoming entangled in the streets of the village, lost 
many prisonerr,. All that night the troops kept arriving 
and taking their j^ositions by moonlight, to be ready for 
the contest which they saw was now close at hand.'' 

Second Day. — In the afternoon Longstreet led the first 
grand charge against the Union left, in order to secure 

I The Union disasters whlcli had happened since tlie beginning of the jear encouraged 
Southern hope that Leo might even dictate tenns of peace in Philadelpliia or New York. 
Galveston, Tex., -which had been seized by the Federals, had been retaken by General 
Magruder, whereby not only valuable stores had been acquired, but a seaport had 
been opened and the Union cause in Texas depressed. The naval attack ou Charles- 
ton had proved a failure (p. 288). An attempt to captiu-e Fort McAllister, near Savannah, 
had met with nosuccess. Rosecranshad made no progress agaiust Bragg. Banks had 
not then taken Port Hudson. Vicksburg still kept Grant at bay. The Army of Jhe 
Potomac had been checked at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, and at one time 
200 soldiers a day were deserting its ranks. The term of service of over forty regi- 
ments had expired, and the strength of the army was now ouly 80,000. The cost of the 
war was enormous, and a strong peace party had arisen in the North. The draft was 
very unpopular. Indeed, just after Lee's invasion a riot broke out in New York to 
resist the draft. Houses were burned, negroes were pursued in the streets, and, when 
captured, were beaten and oven hanged; for three days the city was a scene of out- 
rage and violence. 

'■i "Neither general had planned to have tiio fight at this place; Lee had intended 
not to fight at all, except a defensive battle, and Meade proposed to make the contest 
at Pipe Creek, about fifteen miles southeast from Gettysburg. The movement of 
cavalry whicai brought on this great battle was only a screen to conceal the Union 
army marching toward Meade's desired battlefield." — Drapeh. 

3 The Union line was upon a fishhook-shaped ridge about six miles long, with 
CiUps Hill at the barb, Cemetery Ridge along the side, and Little Round Top and 
Round Top, two eminences, at the eye. The Confederate line was on Seminary Ridge, 
at a distance of about a mile and a half. The Union troops lay behind rock ledges and 
stone walls, while the Confederates were largely hidden in the woods. In the valley 
between were fields of grain and pastureis where cattle were feeding, all unconscious 
of the gathering storm. 



1863] 



BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 



287 



Little Eound Top. Greneral Sickles, by mistake, had here 
taken a position in front of Meade's intended line of battle. 
The Confederates, far outflanking, swung around him; 
but, as they reached the top of the hill, they met a brigade 
which Warren had sent just in time to defeat this attempt. 
Sickles was, however, driven back to Cemetery Ridge, 
where he stood firm. Ewell, in an attack on the Federal 
right, succeeded in getting a position on Gulps Hill.^ 




CONFEDERATE CHARGE, THIRD DAY AT GETTYSBCRG. 

Third Bay. — At 1 p.m. Lee suddenly opened on Ceme- 
tery Ridge with one hundred and fifty guns. For two 
hours the air was alive with shells." Then the cannonade 
lulled, and out of the woods swept the Confederate battle 
line, over a mile long, and preceded by a cloud of skir- 

• Lee, encouraged by these successes, resolved to continue tbe figbt. The Confed- 
erate victorios, however, were only apparent. Sickles had been forced into a better 
position than at first, and tbe one which Meade had intended lie should occupy ; while 
Ewell was driven out of the Union works early the next morning. 

- It is customary in battle to demoralize the enemy, before a grand infantry charge 
by concentrating upon the desired point a tremendous artillery lire. 



288 THE CIVIL WAR [186^ 

misliers. A thrill of admiration ran along the Union 
ranks as, silently and with disciplined steadiness, that 
magnificent line of over 12,000 men moved up the slope of 
Cemetery Ridge. A hundred guns tore great gaps in 
their front. Infantry volleys smote their ranks. The 
line was broken, yet they pushed forward. They planted 
their battle flags on the breastworks. They bayoneted 
the cannoneers at their guns. But no human endurance 
could stand the converging fire of the Federals. Whole 
companies rushed as prisoners into the Union lines, while 
the rest sullenly withdrew.^ On the night of July 4, Lee 
retreated. 

The Federal loss in the three days' fight was 23,000 ; 
the Confederate loss, over 20,000. Meade slowly followed 
Lee, who recrossed the Potomac and took position back 
of the Eapidan. 

The Effect — This battle put an end to Lee's efforts to 
invade the North. It was the turning point of the war. 
From that time the Confederacy waned. Lee's veterans 
who went down in the awful charges of Gettysburg could 
never be replaced. 

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 

Attack on Fort Sumter (Apnl 7). — Such was the con- 
fidencii felt in the ability of the ironclads to resist cannon 
balls that Admiral Dupont attacked Fort Sumter, at the 
entrance to Charleston Harbor, with eight monitors. After 
bombarding it an hour, the fleet withdrew, badly damaged 
by the fire from the Coiifederate ])atteries."' General Gill- 

' At the very irKHiK'iit. when tlio last. cliar^'O was lifiiii? rc|iiilnc(I, I'cniln'itoii w;is 
negotiating for tlic surrender ol' Vickslmrg to (Jrant. 

-The Keokuk sank the next day, and four other vessels were seriously injured. 
The officers declared that the strokes of the shots against the iron sides of their ships 
were as rapid as the tieks of a watcU. 



1863] 



THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 



289 



more, landing on Morris Island, by regular siege ap- 
proaches and a terrible bombardment forced the evacua- 
tion of FoT-t Wagner^ and reduced Fort Sumter to a 
shapeless mass of rubbish. 
Two nights later a party 
of sailors from the Union 
fleet essayed to capture it, 
but its garrison, upstarting 
from the ruins, drove them 
back with heavy loss. 

General Review of the 
Third Year of the War.— 
The Confederates had 
gained the great battles of 
Chickamauga and Chan- 
cellorsville, and successfully resisted every attack on 
Charleston. 

The Federals had gained the important battles before 
Vicksburg, and those at Chattanooga and Grettysburg. 
They had captured the garrisons of Vicksburg and Port 
Hudson. The Mississippi was patrolled by Federal gun- 
boats, and the Confederate army was cut off from its 
Western supplies. Arkansas, east Tennessee, and large 
portions of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas had been 
won for the Union. 




VICINITY OF CHARLESTON HARBOR. 



COLLATERAL READINGS 

Vicksburg:.— Schouler's Hisfori/ of the United Stat s, vol. vi. pp. 375-398. 
The Soldier oftTie Civil AVar.— SclloiUer, vol. vi. pp. 290-31fi. 



1 Two uusuccessfnl assaults were luade on this fort. In one, the first colored re;;!- 
mont organized in the fi-ec States took a promineiit part, flgbtinj? with imdinchiiig •^■■■1- 
'lantry. No measure of the war was more bitterly opposed than the project of arniiiiL;- 
the negroes. It was denounced in the North, and the Confederate Congress passed 
a law which threatened with death any white officer captured while in command 
of negro troops, leaving the men to be dealt with according to the laws of the State 



290 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1864 



1864 

The Situation. — In March General Grant was made 
lieutenant general in command of all the forces of the 

United States/ Hereto- 
fore the different armies 
had acted under generals 
independent of each other. 
They were now to move 
in concert under one gen- 
eral, and thus prevent the 
Confederate forces from 
aiding each other. The 
strength of the South lay- 
in the armies of Lee in Vir- 
ginia and Joseph E. John- 
ston ^ in Georgia. Grant 
was to attack Lee, Sher- 

in which they ■were taken. Yet so will- 
ing were the negroes to enlist, and so 
faithful did they prove themselves in 

eersicc, that in December, 1863, over 50,000 had been enrolled, and before the close of 

the war that number was quadrupled. 

1 Before Grant took command, a joint naval and land expedition, under the com- 
mand of General Banks, was sent up the Red Biver in the hope of destroying the Con- 
federate authority in that region and iu Texas. At Sahine Crossroads, La. (April 8, 
18G4), the Confederate forces under General Dick Taylor attacked the advance while the 
line of march was greatly extended, and a miniature Bull Run retreat ensued. The 
Union troops, however, rallied at Pleasant Hii.l, and the next day, reenforcemcnts 
coming up from the rear, they were able to repulse the Confederates. The army there- 
upon returned to New Orleans, and Banks was relieved of the command. lie had lost 
5000 men, 18 guns, and largo supplies. Besides this, the men employed in the expedi- 
tion were much needed for other work. Part of them had been drawn from northern 
Mississippi and west Tennessee, leaving these regions exposed to Confederate attack. 
Forrest captured a number of Union troojjs iu Tennessee, and advanced into Kentucky. 
Later he fell upon Four Pillow (April 12), which refused to surrender. As his men 
ruslied into the fort, they raised tlu; cry "No quarter!" "The Confederate ottlcers," 
says Pollard, "lost control of their men, who were maddened by the sight of negro 
droops opposing them," and an indiscriminate slaughter followed. 

2 Johnston's army consisted chiefly of the men formerly under Bragg, who was 
superseded soon after the battlp of Chattanooga. Johnston was one of the ablest of 




JOSLIll EGGLESTON JOUNSTON. 



18G4] 



THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 



291 



man^ was to attack Johnston, and both were to keep 
steadily at work. Each began bis advance early in May. 



THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 

Advance upon Atlanta. — Sherman, with 100,000 men, 
moved upon Johnston, who, with nearly 50,000, was 
stationed at Dalton, Ga. The Confederato commander, 
foreseeing this advance, had selected a series of almost 
impregnable positions, one behind another, all the way 
to Atlanta. For 100 miles 
there was continued ma- 
neuvering and skirmishing 
among mountains and 
woods. Sherman would 
drive Johnston into a 
stronghold, and then with 
consummate skill outflank 
him, when Johnston with 
equal skill would retreat 
to a new post and make 
ready to meet his oppo- 
nent again." At Resaca, 

the Confederate generals, as had been 

shown in the battles of Bull Hun and 

Fair Oaks. He was born iu Virginia, 

1807; died 18il. After graduating from 

the West Point Military Acadenij% he 

served iu Indian wars and the war with Mexico, and rose to the rank of tiiiartcrmaster 

general of the United States army. He was wounded in battle ten times. 

1 William Tccumseh Sherman was born in Ohio, 1820; died 1891. He was a West 
Point graduate, but before the outbreak of the war he had retired to civil life. He was 
commissioned colonel in May, 18G1, and commanded a brigade at Bull I\un. He v.as 
then transferred to the West, and fought many battles under Grant. As a general he 
was conspicuous for good judgment, dash, and energy. 

2 When either party stopped for a day or two, it fortitied its front with an abattis of 
felled trees and a ditch with a head-log placed on the embankment. The head-log 
rested on small cross-sticks, thus leaving a space of four or live inches between the 
log and the earth, through which the guns could be pointed. 




\MLL1AAI TlXliMSEH SHEK.MAN. 



292 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1864 



Dallas, and Lost and Kenesaw Mountains, bloody battles 
were fought. Finally Johnston retired to the inrrench- 
mcnts of Atlanta (Jnly ]0). 

Capture of Atlanta. — Davis, dissatisfied with IhisFaiuan 
policy, now put Hood in coniinand. He attacked the 
Union army three times with tremendous energy, but was 
repulsed with great slaughter. 
Thereupon Sherman, repeating 
his favorite flank movement, 
filled his wagons with fif- 



^■'^ V)v teen days' rations, dex- 
" '^ whole army on 



terously shifted his 
ole army on 
Hood's line of 




supplies south of At- 
lanta, and compelled the 
evacuation of the city.^ 

The Effect. — This campaigi 
during four months of fig] 
and marching day and night, 
its ten pitched battles and scores of 
lesser engagements, cost the Union army 30,000 men, 
and the Confederate 35,000. The loss of Atlanta was a se- 
vere blow to the South.'- 

Hood's Invasion of Tennessee. — Hood, with his army, 

1 During this cainpaijfii Sbenuau's supplies were brought up by a single liuc of rail- 
road I'roin Nashville, a distauco of 300 luUes, aud exposed throughout to the attacks of 
the eueuiy. Yet so earefullj' -was it garrisoned, and so rapidly were bridges built and 
breaks repaired, that the damages wero often nieuded before the news of tlie accident 
reached camp. Sherman said that the whistle of tli(? locomotive was frequently heard 
on the camp ground before the echoes of the skirmish tire had died away. 

- Georgia was the workshop, storehouse, granary, and arsenal of tlie Confederacy. 
In Atlanta and the neighboring towns were manufactoiies, foundries, and mills, where 
clothing, wagons, harnesses, powder, balls, and cannon were furnished ti) all its 
armies. The Southern supply of these eciuipments was henceforth greatly reduced. 



1864] THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 293 

doubled around to the railroad in Sherman's rear in north- 
ern Georgia, and the cavalry under Forrest raided Sher- 
man's communications near Chattanooga and Nashville. 
Sherman first drove Hood away from the railroad, and 
sent Thomas, with an inferior force, to defend Tennessee. 
Then, leaving Hood behind hi in, Sherman returned to 
Atlanta and prepared his army for its celebrated " March 
to the Sea." 

Battle of Nashville (December 15, 16). — Hood crossed 
the Tennessee, and General Thomas retired within the 
fortifications at Nashville. For two weeks little was done.^ 
When Thomas was fully ready, he suddenly sallied out 
against Hood, and in a terrible two days' battle drove the 
Confederate forces out of their intrenchments into head- 
long flight. The Union cavalry thundered upon their 
heels with remorseless energy. The infantry followed 
close behind. The bulk of Hood's army, except the rear 
guard, which fought bravely to the last, was I'educed to a 
rabble of demoralized fugitives. 

The Effect. — For the first time in the war, an army was 
destroyed. The object which Sherman hoped to attain 
when he moved on Atlanta was accomplished by Thomas, 
300 miles away. Sherman could now go where he pleased 
with little danger of meeting a powerful foe. The war in 
the West, so far as any great movements were concerned, 
was finished. 

Sherman's March to the Sea. — Breaking loose from his 
communications with Nashville, and burning the city of 
Atlanta, Sherman started (November 16) with 60,000 
men for the Atlantic coast. The army moved in four 

• C.reat disappointment was felt in the North over the retreat to Nashville, and 
stili more at Thomas's delay in that city. Grant ordered him to move, and had actu- 
ally started to take chai-ge of his troops in person, when he learned of the splendid 
victory his slow but sure general had achieved. 



294 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1864 



columns, with a cloud of cavalry under Kilpatrick in 
front. The Georgia Central and Augusta railroads were 
destroyed, and the troops foraged on the country as they 
passed. In five weeks they marched 300 miles, reached 
the sea, stormed Fort McAllister, and occupied Savannah.' 
The Effect of this march can hardly be overestimated. 
A fertile region 60 miles wide and 300 long was desolated ; 




SHEKMAN'S MAUCH. 



300 miles of railroad were destroyed; the eastern portion 
of the already sundered Confederacy was cut in twain; 
immense supplies of provisions were captured, and the 
hardships of war were brought home to many who had 
hitherto been exempt from its actual contact. 



THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 



Battle of the Wilderness (May 5, 6). — The Army of the 
Potomac crossed tlie Rapidan (May 4), and plunged into 

"• Sherman sent the news of its capture, with 25,000 bales of cot^^on and 150 cannon, to 
President Lincoln, as a Christmas present to the nation. 



1864] 



THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 



295 




.-•-'Ai^n. In 

-^ ^Couit II 
l,lottes\ ille <:^^' V ^ ^ 




the Wilderness, not far from Chancellorsville/ While the 
columns were toiling along the narrow roads, they sud- 
denly found and 
attacked the Con- 
federate army. 
The dense forest 
forbade all strat- 
egy. In those 
gloomy shades, 
dense with smoke, 
this strangest of 
battles, which no 
eye could follow, 
marked only by 
the shouts and 
volleys, now ad- 
vancing, now re- 
ceding, as either 
side 
lost 

and fro. The 

third day, both armies remained in their intrenchments. 
Neither side had conquered. It was generally supposed 
that the Federals would recross the Rapidau. Grant, how- 
ever, quietly gathered up the army and pushed it by the 
Confederate right flank toward Spottsylvania Court House. 
Battle of Spottsylvania (May 8-12). — Lee detected the 
movement, and hurried troops to hold the road, barring 
Grant's progress. Five days of continuous maneuvering - 

1 Meade remained at the head of this Army of the Potomac, but over him was 
Grant, who was generally with it also, and directed all important movements. 

' During this time the sharpshooters on both sides, hidden in the trees, were busy 
picking off officers. On the 9th, General Sedgwick, while superintending the placing 
of a battery in the front, was struck by a bullet and lulled. 



gained or 
, surged to 




WAR IN VIRGINIA, 1864. 



296 THE CIVIL WAR (ISO} 

and fighting^ having given no advantage, Grant decided 
to try the favorite movement of the ycai-, and turn Lee's 
right flank again.'- 

Battle of Cold Harbor (June o). — Lee, however, moved 
on inner and shorter hues, and after some maneuvering 
sUpped into the intrenchments of Cold Harbor. At day- 
break tlie Union troops made an assault, only to l)e beaten 
back with terrible slaughter. Lee's army, sheltered be- 
hind its works, suffered little.^ 

Attack on Petersburg. — Grant now rapidly pushed his 
army over the James, below Richmond, and fell upon 
Petersburg; but here again Lee was ahead, and the works 
could not be forced. Grant, therefore, threw up intrench- 
ments and sat down in front of the Confederate lines. 
The campaign now resolved itself into a siege of Rich- 
mond, with Petersburg as its advanced post. 

The Effect. — The campaign had cost the Union 54,000 



' On the iiiornins of the 12th, Hancock's corps, hidden by a dense fog, charRod upon 
the Conl'i derate line, broke the abattis, surrounded a division, and took nearly 4(MiO 
prisoners, including two generals. So complete was the surprise that tlie ollicers were 
captured at breakfast. Lee, however, rallied, and tlie fighting was so fierce to regain 
this lost position that a " tree eighteen Inches in diameter was cut in two I)y the bullets 
which struck it. Ten thousand men fell on each side." 

- It was during this fearful battle that Grant sent his famous dispatcli : " I ijurpose to 
light it out on this line, if it takes all suuinicr." 

:• Grant had arrangcid for three cooperative movements to divide the strength of the 
Confederate army: (1) General Sigel. with 7000 men, was to advance up the Shenandoah 
valley; but ho was routed at Kkw Maukkt (May 1."/). General Hunter, wlio super- 
seded him, defeated the Confederates at Piicd.mont (Juno v>), but pushing on to Lynch- 
burg with about 20,000 men, he found it too strong, and prudently retii'cd into West 
Virginia. (2) On the night that the Army of the I'otomae crossed th(^ Kapidan, General 
Butler, with 30,000 men, ascended the James Kiver to operate against IMchmond. But 
after some lighting he was forced back to the peninsula of Bernuida Hundred, where- 
upon Beauregard threw intrenchments across the narrow strip connecting it with the 
mainland. As (irant tersely said, the Union force was then shut off from any further 
advance "as comphtely . . . as if it had been in a bottle strongly corked." (3) 
General Sheridan, while the army was at Spottsylvauia, passed in the rear of the Con- 
federate position, destroyed miles of railroad, recaptured 400 prisoners, and defeated a 
cavalry force with the loss of its leader, General J. E. B. Stuart, the best cavalry 
olllcer in the South. 



1864] 



SIEGE OF RICHMOND 



297 



men/ and the Confederacy also many thousand. The 
weakened capabilities of the South were now fairly pitted 
against the almost exhaustless resources of the North. 
Grant's plan was to keep constantly hammering Lee's 
army, knowing that it was the chief hope of the Confed- 
eracy. 

The Siege of Richmond continued until the spring cam- 
paign of 1865. It was marked by two important events : 

1. Mine Explosmi (July 30). — From a hidden ravine in 
front of Petersburg, a mine had been dug underneath a 




THE rETERSBURG CRATER. 



strong Confederate fort. Just at dawn the powder blast 
was fired. Several cannon, the garrison of 300 men, and 
huge masses of earth were thrown high in air. The 
Federal guns opened fire at once along the entire line. 

1 The above statement of the enormous Federal losses of tliis campaign is based 
upon the official records of tlie killed, wounded, and missing. There are no complete 
records of the Confederate loss; certain Southern wiiters put it as low as 19,000, but 
Other writers give between 25,000 and 50,000. 
B.HIST. V. S." 18 



298 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 

An assaulting column rushed forward, but stopped in the 
crater produced by the explosion. The Confederates 
poured shot and shell from every side upon the struggling 
mass of men huddled within the demolished fort. The 
Federals lost about 4000 men in this ill-starred affair. 

2. Attack upon the Weldon Railroad (August 18). — By 
threatening Richmond upon the north, Grant induced Lee 
to move troops to that city from Petersburg. The oppor- 
tunity was at once seized, and the railroad leading to 
Weldon, N. C, was captured. Lee, aware of the great im- 
portance of this means of communication with the South, 
for several days made desperate but vain attempts for its 
recovery. 

Early's Raid. — Hunter's retreat (p. 296) having laid open 
the Shenandoah valley, Lee -took advantage of it to 
threaten Washington, hoping thus to draw off Grant from 
the siege of Richmond. General Early, with 20,000 men, 
accordingly hurried along this oft-traveled route. Defeat- 
ing General Wallace at Monoc'acy River, he appeared before 
Fort Stevens, one of the defenses of Washington (July 11). 
Had he rushed by forced marches, he might have captured 
the city ; but he stopped a day. Federal reeiif orcements 
having now arrived, he retreated, and, laden with booty, 
recrossed the Potomac.^ 

Sheridan's Campaign. — Sheridan was now put in com- 
mand of all the troops in this region. He defeated Early at 
Winchester and Fishers Hill, and in a week destroyed 
half his army, and sent the rest " whirling up the valley." " 
Early was quickly reenforced, and, returning during Sheri- 



1 Later, he sent a party of cavalry into Pennsylvania. They entered Chambers- 
burg, and, on failing to obtain a ransom of $500,000, set flre to the village, and escaped 
safely back into the Shenandoah valley. 

2 In order to prevent any further raids upon Washington from this direction, 
Sheridan devastated the valley so thoroughly that it was said : " If a crow wants to fly 
down the Bhenaudoah, he must carry his provisions with him." 



1864] THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 299 

dan's absence, surprised his army at Cedar Creek (Octo- 
ber 19), and drove it in confusion. Sheridan arrived at 
this critical moment,^ reformed his ranks, ordered an ad- 
vance, and, attacking the Confederates, now busy plunder- 
ing the captured camp, routed them with great slaughter. 
The Effect. — This campaign of only a month was one of 
the most brilliant of the war. Sheridan lost 17,000 men, 
but he virtually destroyed Early's army, and there was 
no further attempt to threaten Washington. 

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 

The Blockade was now so effectual that the prices of all 
imported goods in the Confederate States were fabulous.^ 
On account of the enormous profits of a successful voyage, 
foreign merchants were constantly seeking to run the 
gantlet. Their swift steamers, long, narrow, low, of a mud 
color, and making no smoke, occasionally escaped the 
vigilance of the Federal squadron. During the war, it is 

1 Early's attack was mado under cover of a dense fog and the darkness of the early 
morning. General Wright, the Union commander, though wounded, remained on the 
field, and managed to get his troops into a new position about seven miles in the rear. 
Sheridan heard the cannonading while riding from Winchester, nearly twenty miles 
from Cedar Creek. Knowing the importance of his presence, ho, put spurs to his coal- 
black steed, and never drew rein for almost twelve miles, when, his horse covered 
with foam, he dashed to the new front. As he passed the fugitives along the road, he 
shouted : "Turn, boys, turn ! We're going back." Under the magnetism of his presence, 
the men followed him back to the flglit and victory. 

2 Flour brought, in Confederate currency, $40 a barrel ; calico, $30 a yard ; coffee, 
$50 a pound. Dried sage, raspberry, and other leaves were substituted for the costly 
tea. Woolen clothing was scarce, and the army depended largely on captures of the 
ample Federal stores. Pins were so scarce that they were eagerly picked up in the 
streets. Paper was so expensive that matches could no longer be put in boxes. Sugar, 
butter, and white bread became luxuries even for the wealthy. Salt, being a necessity, 
was economir>ed to the last degree, old pork and flsh barrels being soaked and the 
water evaporated so that not a grain of salt might be wasted. Women wore garments 
that were made of cloth carded, spun, woven, and dyed by their own hands. Large 
thorns were fitted with wax heads and made to servo as hairpins. Shoes were man- 
ufactured with wooden soles, to which the uppers were attached by means of small 
tacks. 



300 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 

said, over fifteen hundred blockade runners were taken or 
destroyed. 

Confederate Cruisers had now practically driven the 
American commerce from the ocean. They were not 
privateers, like those named on page 259, for they were 
commissioned as regular war ships of the Confederate 
government. They sailed to and fro upon the track of 
American ships, recklessly plundering and burning, or else 
bonding them for heavy sums. 

The Alabama was the most noted of these steamers. 
Against the urgent remonstrances of the United States 

minister at the British 
court, she was allowed 
to sail from England, 
where she was built, 
although her mission 
was well known. An 
English captain took 
her to the Azores, where 
English vessels brought 
her arms, ammunition, 
and the Confederate Captain Semmes with additional 
men.' Putting out to sea, he read his commission and 
announced his purpose. After capturing over sixty ves- 
sels, he sailed to Cherbourg, France, Wliile there he 
sent a challenge to Captain Winslow of the Federal ship 
of war Kear'sarge. This was accepted, and a battle took 
place off the harbor (June, 1864). The two ships moved 
round in a circular track, pouring broadsides into each 

1 Of the other important Confederate cruisers, three (tlio Shenandoah, Florida, ami 
Georgia) were Kritisli tmilt, and were equipiicd in much the same way as the Alabama, 
while two (the Siiinlcr and Tanahassc4:) came from Confederate ports. Reveral other 
warships were l)uilt or equipped for the Confederates in British and French ports, but 
were not allowed to sail. 




THE ALABAMA. 



1864] THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 301 

other. After the seventh rotation, the Confederate vessel 
surrendered and soon after sank.^ 

The Expedition against Mobile Bay (August 5) was 
under the command of Admiral Farragut. That he might 
oversee the battle more distinctly, he took a position in 
the rigging of his flagship, the Hartford. The vessels, 
lashed together in pairs for mutual assistance, in an hour 
fought their way past the Confederate forts and engaged 




FARRAGUT IN MOBILE BAY. 



the ironclad fleet beyond. After a desperate resistance, 
the great iron ram Tennessee was taken, and the other 
vessels were captured or put to flight. The forts were 
soon after reduced, and the harbor was thenceforth closed 
to blockade runners.^ 

1 Captain Winslow rescued a part of the sinkiDg crew, and others were picked up, 
at his request, by the Deerhound, an English yacht ; but this vessel steamed off to the 
British coast with those she had saved, among whom was Captain Semmes. 

2 The city of Mobile was not captured until the next year (April, 1865). On April 12 
the Union troops, under General Cauby, entered the city, ignorant that Lee had sur- 
rendered three days before and that the Confederacy was dead. 



302 THE CIVIL WAR [18G4 

The Expedition against Fort Fisher, which defended 
the harbor of Wilmington, N. C, was made by a large 
fleet under Commodore Porter, together with a detach- 
ment of the army. The first attempt on the fort having 
failed, the army was placed under the command of Gen- 
eral Terry. Protected by a terrible fire from the fleet, a 
column of sailors and one of soldiers worked their way, by 
a series of trenches, within two hundred yards of the fort. 
At the word, the sailors leaped forward on one side and 
the soldiers on another. The sailors were repulsed, but 
the soldiers burst into the fort. The hand-to-hand fight 
within lasted for hours. Late at night, the garrison, 
hemmed in on all sides, surrendered (January 15, 1865). 
One knows not which to admire the more, the gallantry 
of the attack or the heroism of the defense. With the cap- 
ture of Fort Fisher, the last Confederate port was closed. 

The Sanitary Commission and the Christian Commission 
were splendid examples of organized mercy furnished 
by the people of the North. They devised and pro- 
vided every possible comfort for the sick and wounded, 
besides distributing religious reading to every soldier in 
the field- Ambulances, stretchers, hot coffee, postage 
stamps, paper and envelopes, prayer meetings, medicines, 
Christian burial — every want of body or soul was pro- 
vided for. Homes for men on sick leave, and for those 
not yet under or just out of the care of the government, 
or who had been left by their regiments ; feeding sta- 
tions for the tired and hungry, and even homes for the 
wives, mothers, and children of soldiers who had come 
to visit their sick or wounded, were established. On every 
flag-of-truce boat were placed clothing, medicines, and 
cordials for the prisoners who had been exchanged. With 
boundless mercy, they cared for all while living, and gave 



1864] POLITICAL. AFFAIRS 303 

Christian burial and marked graves to the dead. Over 
$17,000,000 in money and supplies was expended by these 
two commissions. 

Political Affairs. — In the North there was much dis- 
satisfaction with the conduct of the war. The debt had 
become about $2,000,000,000. In July, 1864, paper money 
reached its greatest depreciation, and it required two 
dollars and ninety cents in greenbacks to buy one dollar 
in gold. This was the time of Grrant's repulse from 
Cold Harbor and of Early's raid. Yet, in the midst of 
these discouragements, Abraham Lincoln was renominated 
by the Republican party. George B. McClellan was the 
Democratic candidate; he stood firmly for the prosecution 
of the war and the maintenance of the Union, but was 
not in full sympathy with the policy of the administration. 
He carried only three States. Lincoln had a popular ma- 
jority of over 400,000. 

General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. — The 
Confederates had gained the battles of Sabine Crossroads, 
Bermuda Hundred, Spottsylvania, New Market, Cold Har- 
bor, and Monocacy River ; they had defeated the expedi- 
tions into Florida ^ and the Red River country, and yet held 
Grant at bay before Richmond and Petersburg. They had, 
however, lost ground on every side, and every one of the 
Southern States had encountered the attack of Union forces. 
The Federals had gained the battles of Resaca, Dallas, 
Kenesaw, Atlanta, Winchester, Fishers Hill, Cedar Creek, 
Nashville, and many others. They had captured Fort 
McAllister and the forts in Mobile harbor, and had 
taken Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman had swept across 

1 This expedition was fitted out by General Gillmore to recover Florida, After 
some success, his troops, under General Seymour, advanced to Olustee, where (Feb- 
ruary 20) they met a disastrous defeat and were forced to relinquish much they had 
gained. The men were afterwards taken to Virginia to engage in more important work. 



304 THP: civil war [1865 

Georgia ; Sheridan had devastated the Shenandoah valley, 
driving its defenders before him; Thomas had annihilated 
Hood's army ; Grant held Lee firmly grasped at Eichmond; 
and the navj^ swept the entire coast. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Sherman's Alarcli to the Sea. — Schouler'a History of the United Slates, vol. vi. 
pp. 546-665. 

1865 

The Situation. — The plan of the campaign was very sim- 
ple. The end of the war was clearly at hand. Sherman 
was to move north from Savannah and then join Grant 
in the final attack upon Lee. Sheridan, with 10,000 
troopers, swept across from the Shenandoah, cut the rail- 
roads north of the James, and took his place in the Union 
lines before Petersburg. Large bodies of Federal cavalry, 
under Wilson and Stoneman, were operating in Alabama 
and western Virginia and North Carolina. 

Sherman's March through the Carolinas. — After a month's 
rest in Savannah, Sherman's troops were put in motion 
northward early in February. There was no waiting 
for roads to dry or for bridges to be built, but the troops 
swept on like a tornado. Rivers were waded, and one 
battle was fought on ground that was covered with water. 
The army, about 60,000 strong, moved in four colunms, 
with a front of more than fifty miles. Cavalry and fora- 
gers swarmed on the flanks. Before them was terror ; be- 
hind them were ashes. 

Columbia was captured (February 17). That night 
nearly the entire city was burned to the ground. Charles- 
ton, threatened in the rear, was evacuated the next day. 
Then there were fierce battles at Averysboko and Benton- 
viLLE, where the Confederates were commanded by 



1865] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST 



305 



Johnston.* Sherman next pressed forward to Groldsboro, in 

order to join Schofield, who had made his way thither from 

Newbern, and Terry, who had come up from Wilmington. 

Soon the three armies united, and 100,000 men upheld the 

flag of the Union 

along the banks of 

theNeuse.^ Sherman 

then went to City 

Point, to arrang 

with Grant the plan 

of the final struscfflo 




Siege of Richmond. — 

Lee's position was fast be- 
coming desperate. His 
only hope lay in getting 
out of Richmond and join- 
ing Johnston. Their united armies might prolong the 
struggle. Grant was determined to prevent this and com- 
pel Lee to surrender,^ as he had forced Pemberton to do. 

1 This Confederate army, about 20,000 strong, was made up of the remnant of Hood's 
army, troops that had Oecn defending Savannah and other towns, and State militia. 

2Thedistauco traversed by the army in go tag from Savannah to Goldsboro was 
about 425 miles. The country was generally wild and swampy. To make the mud 
roads passable, each column " corduroyed " with rails and logs over 100 miles, besides 
biulding bridges across the many streams and rivers. Yet, in fifty days after breaking 
camp upon the Savannah, the troops bivouacked upon the Neuse. 

3 Lee decided to attack Grant's line in order to hide his plan of retreat, and espe- 
cially in the hope that Grant would send troops from the left to succor the threatened 



306 THE CIVIL WAR [1865 

Battle of Five Forks (April 1). — The final movement 
began Wednesday morning, March 29. Sheiidau, with 
his cavalry — 9000 sabers — and heavy columns of infantry, 
pushed out from Grant's left wing to get around in Lee's 
rear. At Five Forks the Confederate force was over- 
whelmed, all their artillery captured, and more than 5000 
men taken prisoners. Lee's position was now untenable. 
His right was turned and his rear threatened. 

Capture of Petersburg and Richmond (April 2, 3). — The 
next morning, at four o'clock, the Union army advanced 
in an overwhelming assault along tlio whole front. By 
noon the Confederate line of intrenchments, before which 
the Army of the Potomac had lain so long, was broken, 
and thousands of prisoners were captured. That night 
Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated. The next 
morning the Union troops took possession of the Con- 
federate capital, the coveted goal of the Army of the 
Potomac for four long bloody years. 

Lee's Surrender. — Meanwhile Lee, having only the 
wreck of that proud array with which he had dealt the 
Union army so many crushing blows, hurried west, seek- 
ing some avenue of escape. Grant urged the pursuit with 
untiring energy. Food now failed the Confederates, and 
many could get only the young shoots of trees to eat. If 
they sought a moment's repose, they were awakened by 
the clatter of pursuing cavalry. Lee, like a hunted fox, 
turned hither and thither ; but at last Sheridan in strong 
force planted himself squarely across the front. Lee made 

point. In that case he would slip out, with the maiu body of his army, by tno nearest 
road southward, which ran close by the Uiiiou left Foht Stkdman was assaulted and 
captured, but was at once retaken by the Federals (March 25). Of the attacking force 
about 3000 were lost. To make matters worse, a Union assault followed directly after- 
wards, and a portion of the Confederate outer defenses was captured. Thus Grant's 
grip was only tightened. lie bad made no cliange in the position of his troops, and 
this sortie neither hastened nor delayed the final attack. 



18653 



LEE'S SURRENDER 



307 



ready for battle, and the Civil War seemed about to end 
in one of its bloodiest tragedies, when the Confederate 
advance was stopped. C-eneral Grant had already sent in 
a note demanding the surrender of the army. Lee ac- 
cepted the terms ; ' and in the afternoon of April 9 the 
remains of the Army of Virginia laid down their arms 




ARRANGING LEE'S SURRENDER. 

near Appomattox Court House, and then turned home- 
ward, no longer Confederate soldiers, but American 
citizens. 

• The officers and men were allowed to go home on their paroles not to take up 
arms against the United States until exchanged, and the former were to retain their 
private baggage and horses. After the surrender had been concluded, General Lee 
said that he had forgotten to mention that many of his soldiers rode their own horses. 
Grant at once replied that such should keep their horses to aid them in their future 
work at home. The two armies so fiercely opposed for four years parted with words 
of sympathy and respect — an assured presage of a day when all the wounds of the 
cruel war should be fully healed. The Federal authorities state that 28,356 oflBcers and 
men were paroled at Appomattox Court House and 22.633 small arms were given up. 
The Confederate accounts, however, place the men and arms surrendered at a much 
less number. The total number paroled from all the Confederate armies was 174,223. 



ddd TflE ciirtL.WAR pges 

The Effect.— This closed the war. The other Confed- 
erate armies promptly surrendered, that under Johnston on 
April 26, near Raleigh, N. C* Jefferson Davis fled south- 
ward, hoping to escape, but was overtaken in Georgia 
(May 10), and sent a prisoner to Fort Monroe. 

Results of the War. — Besides dooming slavery, this war 
settled forever the question of " State rights." The doc- 
trines of nullification and secession were dead. The arbit- 
rament of the sword had decided that no State, having 
once joined the Union, can ever secede. The rights of 
the States as deflued in the United States Constitution 
remained as sacred as ever ; but it was settled for all time 
that the United States is one nation, rather than a league 
of sovereign states. 

Cost of the War.— In the Union armies, over 300,000 
men were killed in battle or died of wounds or disease, 
and 200,000 more were crippled for life. If the Confed- 
erate armies suffered as heavily, the country thus lost 
1,000,000 able-bodied men. The Union debt, when largest 
(August 31, 18G5), was in round numbers $2,845,000,000:"^ 
but this was far from representing the entire expense of 
the war.^ The Confederate war debts were never paid, as 
that government was overthrown. 

Assassination of Lincoln.— In the midst of the uni- 
versal rejoicings over the advent of peace, on the evening 

1 The last flplit of tho war happmeil iiear Brazos Santiago, Tex., May 13. A small 
expedition sent out to surprise a Coufcdcrate eaiiip was overtaken, on its return, by a 
larger force, and defeated with a loss of 80 men. 

^The interest-bearing debt (bonds and notes) was $2,3H2,000,000 ; beginning with 18f.6, 
this was reduced j'ear by year until in 1S93 it was only $.585,000,000. In looo it was 
11,023,000,000. The non-interest-bcaring debt in isG') consisted chiefly of greenbacks 
(United States notes), which had ))een made, legal tender and thus forced into circula- 
tion as paper money, to the extent of $449,000,000. Some of these notes •wliieh were 
paid into the United States treasury were canceled and destroyed, but this cancella- 
tion was stopped in 1878, and ever since the amount of these notes has been $.346,081,016. 

3 States and cities gave millions toward the expense of the war, and the national 
government raised large sums by many kinds of taxation. 



1865] NEW STATES 309 

of April 14 the intelligence was flashed over the country 
that -Lincoln had been assassinated/ While seated with 
his wife and friends in his box at Ford's Theater, he was 
shot by John Wilkes Booth," who insanely imagined he 
was ridding his country of a tyrant. The stricken Presi- 
dent was carried to a private house near by, where, around 
his unconscious body, gathered the most prominent men 
of the nation, who mourned and watched, waiting in vain 
for some sign of recognition, until the next morning, when 
he died.^ 

NEW STATES (1861-1865) 

West Virginia, tlie thirty-fifth State, was admittbd to the Union June 19, 1863. This 
western part of the old State of Virginia was strongly opposed to the ordinance of 
secession adopted by tlie convention of that State. The people there who were in 
favor of the Union set up a government which was recognized by the Federal autlior- 
Ities as the government of Virginia, although it controlled only the smaller part of 
the State. It was the legislature of this "Restored Government of Virginia" which 
gave consent to the formation of the new State of West Virginia, as required by the 
United States Constitution in the case of any new State formed by the division of an 
old one. 

Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union October 31, 1864. It is 
part of the territory ceded by Mexico. Its first settlement was at Carson City. Nevada 
Territory was formed, in 1861, from part of the original Territory of Utah. Two years 
after its admission as a State, its area was increased by additions on the east and 
south. 

• A nearly fatal attempt was also made at the same time upon William H. Seward, 
Secretary of State, who was lying sick in his bed at home. 

2 Booth stealthily entered the box, fastened the door, that he might not be followed, 
shot the President, then, waving his pistol, shouted, " Sic semper tyrannis " (80 be it 
always to tyrants), and leaped to the stage in front. As he jumped, the American 
flag draped before the box— mute avenger of the nation's chief — caught his spur, and, 
throwing him heavily, broke his leg. In the confu.sioa, however, the assassin escaped, 
mounted a horse waiting for him, and fled. He was at length overtaken in a barn in 
Virginia, and was shot while resisting arrest. His accomplices were arrested, tried, 
and convicted. Four were hanged ; three were condemned to imprisonment for life ; 
and one was sentenced for six years. 

3 The funeral was held on the 19th. It was a day of mourning throughout the land. 
In most of the cities and towns funeral orations were pronounced. The body was 
borne to Springfield over the same route along which Lincoln had come as President- 
elect to Washington. The procession may be said to have extended the entire dis- 
tance. The churches, principal buildings, and even the engines and cars were draped 
in black. Almost every citizen wore the badge of mourning. 



310 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Inauguration of Lincoln. 

2. Condition of tlie Country. 

3. Capture of Fort Sumter. 



4. War in the East. 



War in tlic West. 
War on the Sea and 
on the Cojist. 



■ a. Cspturc of Arlington Heights and Alexandria. 
b. Battle of Big Itctlicl. 

c Campaign in wrstorn Virginia. 

d. BattliofBullUuii. 

e. Balls Bluff. 



C a. rri> 
i c. Tre 



Privatci^rs. 
iival KxjX'ditions. 
nt Aflair. 



General Review of tlie First Year of the War. 
The Situation. 



2. War in the West. 



War on the Sea and 
on tliu Coast. 



4. War in the East. 



' a. The Situation. 
6. Capture of Forts Flenry and Donclson 

c. Battle of Shiloh. 

d. Capture of Island No. 10. 
c. BriiKK'a Kiiiturky Kxpoditio 
/. Battles of lukii and Corinth, 
ff. Battle of Murl'reesboro. 
ft. First Vicksburg K.xpedition. 

a. Capture of New Orleans. 

b. Burnside's Expedition. 

c. Florida and Georgia Expeditions. 

d. Mcrriuiac and Alunitur. 



J! 



a. Smith*9 Invasion. 
Brnrfg'g Invasi'm. 
Bathe 0/ rerryvilU. 



a. The Peninsular Campaign. 



6. Campaign against Pope. 



c. Invasion of AInrylnnd. 

d. Battle of Fredoricksbi 



rg- 



a. Hifqr nf Torktown. 

b. Battle of Williamsburg. 

c. Richmond Threatened, 

d. Shenandoah Campaign, 

e. Battle o/ Jttir Oaks. 

f. Vnimi Army Checked. 

g. Seven Days' Battle: 
The Situation. 
Lee's Plan. 

Second Battle of Bull Run. 
Battle of South Mountain. 
Capture of Harpers Ftrry. 

Battle of Antietam. 






4. 

5. 
6. 

2. 



General Review of the Second Year of the War. 
The Situation. 

Movement against Pemberton. 
Defeat of JolinBton. 
Siege of Vieksburg. 
C a. The Situation. 
< h. Battle of ChickaiiiRuga. 
( c. Battle of Chattanooga. 
5 a. Battle of Clianccllorflville 
/ b. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. 



Second Expedition 
against Vicksburg. 

War in Tennessee and 
Georgia. 

War in the East. 



( a. V, 

\ b. I) 
( c. Si 



War on the Sea and on the Coast. 

General Review of the Third Year of the War. 

The Situation. 



War in Tennessee and 
Georgia. 



3. War in Virginia. 



' a. Advance upon Atlanta. 
h. Capture of Atlanta. 

c. Hood's Invasion of Tennessee. 

d. Sherman's March to the Sea. 

a. Bntlle of 111.- Wilderness. 

b. Battle of Spottsylvaiiia. 

c. Battle of Colli lliirtior. 
k on I'ete 



War on the Sea and 
on the Coast. 



a. Lee's Plan. 

b. Battle of Gettysburg. 



Hood's Plan. 
Battle of Kashville. 



. Attack 



ersburg. 



n. The Situation. 

1). Grant's Plan. 

a- Mine Exjitosion. 

b Attack upon the Weldon Railroad. 



W' 
1. 



e. Siege of Richmond. 

/. Early's Raid. 

. g. Sheridan's Campaign in the Shenandoah Valley. 
■ a. The Blockade 

b. Confedernte C^miBers. 

c. E.\peilltion against Mobile Bay. 

d. Expedition against Fort Fisher. 

The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. 

Political Affairs in the North. 

General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. 

The Situation. 

Sherman's March through the Carolinas. 



\i 



3. Siege of Richmond. 

4. Lee's Surrender. 

5. Results of the War. 

6. Cost of the War. 

7. Assassination of Lincoln. 

8. New States. 



Lee'fl Hope and Grant's Plan. 

Battle of Five Forks. 

Capture of Petersburg and liicbmond. 



EPOCH YI.— DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
NATION (since 1865) 

This epoch begins with the nation exhausted by civil 
war, but freed at last from the nightmare of disunion. 
The awakened power of the North quickly turns to an 
industrial expansion surpassing the wildest dreams. The 
South, crushed by defeat and devastation, has first to 
restore her ruins and accustom herself to the new system 
of free labor and f reedmen's rights. Yet within a genera- 
tion the reunited sections are advancing with even pace. 
The farther West now quickly grows to maturity. Indian 
reservations are reduced to smaller compass. Before the 
end of the century, however, nearly all the tillable public 
land is occupied; the nation looks abroad for an outlet to 
its surplus energy, and takes its place among the world 
powers in the larger politics of the globe. 

The Civil War left many questions to be settled in this 
epoch. What was the political status of the late seceded 
States, and how should they resume their places in the 
Union? What rights should be given to the emancipated 
negro 1 What was to be done with the greenbacks, which 
for a long time formed the chief money ^ in circulation? 



1 Besides these Unitecl States notes, tliere were also in circulation— as there are 
still— many national banknotes; that is, notes issued by bauks established under 
laws passed by Congress in 18C1 and later. In 1865 Congress put an end to State bank- 
notes by levying a tax of ten per cent on their circulation. The national banks 
deposit United States bonds in the national treasury to secure the payment of the bank- 
notes, and their payment is guaranteed by the national government. 

311 



312 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [18C5 

The great iDdustrial expansion also created many prob- 
lems, or gave new life to old ones. During the war the 
tariff duties on imports had been largely extended and 
increased in the effort to raise all possible revenue. Now, 
with the growth of our manufactures and trade, vast 
interests were affected by the tariff question : should the 
duties be kej^t high to increase the profits of the producer, 
or should they be lowered so as to lessen the cost of goods 
to the consumer? Vast interests also were involved in 
the money question : should the dollar of commerce mean, 
ultimately, a certain amount of gold, or the debtor's choice 
between that amount of gold and a certain amount of 
silver, or merely a paper greenback? Vast interests also 
were involved in the relations between labor and capital. 
As the short railroads of earlier days were, under the lash 
of competition, joined into trunk systems, and as similar 
unions of companies and corporations took place in va- 
rious branches of manufacture, so, step by step, the trades 
unions of laborers were combined in a more thorough 
organization. Conflicts between organized labor and or- 
ganized capital became wides^Dread and disastrous : how 
should such injury be avoided ? 

We shall find in this epoch that some of the problems 
have been solved, l)ut that others remain to tax the wisdom 
of the statesman and prove the patriotism of the citizen. 

JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869)1 

The death of Lincoln produced no disorder, and within 
three hours tliereafter the Vice President, Andrew John- 
son, quietly assumed the duties of the presidency. 

J Andrew Johnson was boni in Raleifili, N. C, 1808; died 1875. Wlicn ten years old 
he was apintnticfd to a tailor. Never h.iving been ;it school, he yet detcirmined to 
secure an education. From a fellow-worliraau ho learned the alphabet, and from a 



1865] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 813 

Disbanding of the Army. — At the close of the war the 
Union army numbered 1,000,000 soldiers. Within six 
months they had nearly all returned home. Thus the 
mightiest host ever called to the field by a republic went 
back without disturbance to the tranquil pursuits of civil 
life. Other nations prophesied that such a vast army 
could not be disbanded peaceably. The republic, by this 
final triumph of law and order, proved itself the most 
stable government in the world.^ 

Domestic Affairs. — Reconstruction Policy of the Presi- 
dent. — Johnson recognized the State governments that, 
during the war, had been formed in Virginia, Tennessee, 
Arkansas, and Louisiana, under the protection of the 
Union army. In the other States he appointed provisional 
governors, and authorized the calling of conventions to 
form loyal governments. These conventions accordingly 
met, repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiated the 
Confederate war debt, and ratified a thirteenth amend- 
ment to the Constitution (abolishing slavery), which Con- 
gress had offered early in 1865. This done, Johnson 
claimed that the States, having never been legally out of 
the Union, should be restored to their rights in the Union. 
He also issued a proclamation of pardon to those who had 

friend something of spelling. Tlienceforth, after working from ten to twelve hours a 
day at his trade, lie spent two or three hours every night in study. In 1826 he went west 
to seek his fortune, with true filial afi'ection carrying with him his mother, who was 
dependent on his labor for support. After his marriage at Greeneville, Teun., he con- 
tinued his studies under the instruction of his wife, pursuing his trade as before by 
day. His political life began with his election as alderman. He was successively 
chosen mayor, member of legislature State senator, congressman, governor, United 
States senator, and Vice President. 

• A grand review of the armies of Grant and Sherman, 200,000 strong, took place in 
the presence of the President and his cabinet. For twelve hours this triumphal pro- 
cession, thirty miles long, massed in solid column twentj- men deep, mnrched through 
the broad avenues of the capital. Many of the Federal soldiers and sailors soon 
afterwards formed the society called the Grand Army of the Republic, which exerte(? 
a great influence in fostering the spirit of patriotism. 

fk HIST. U. 8.— 19 



314 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1865 

engaged in secession, except certain classes,' on the condi- 
tion of taking the oath of allegiance to the United States. 

The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, having 
thus been ratified by the requisite number of States, was 
declared (December 18, 1865) duly adopted as a part of 
the Constitution of the United States. 

Beconstructiou Policy of Congress. — When Congress met 
(December, 1865), it took decided gi'ound against the 
policy of the President. It refused to admit the senators 
and representatives from the eleven seceded States, and 
prescribed new conditions for the readmission of these 
States, among them the ratification of a fourteenth amend- 
ment to the Constitution (guaranteeing equal civil rights 
to all). The Civil Rights, Freedmen's Bureau, and Tenure 
of Office bills " were all jjassed over the President's veto. 

Seceded States Admitted. — Tennessee promptly ratified 
the Fourteenth Amendment, as Congress required, and 
was restored to her former position in the Union (1866). 
The other ten provisional governments having refused to 
do so, a bill was passed placing those States under mili- 
tary rule. The generals in command caused a registry of 
voters to be made and elections to be held for conventions 
to remodel the State constitutions. After a bitter and 
protracted struggle, new governments were estal)lished in 
Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and North 
and South Carolina,^ and their representatives were ad- 

' Many of tho i)er8ou8 thus excluded ol)tainc<l pardous from the Pi-esident by 
perBonal apiilicatioii. One complaint against him was the readiness with which he 
granted such pardons. 

- Tho tlrst bill guaranteed to the negi-oes the civil rifrhts of cltizonsliip. Under the 
provisions of the sec<md bill, national offlcers cared for and protected the frecdmen, I.e. 
the emancipated slaves, and also the dcstitut(i whites in the South. The third bill 
made the consent of the Bcnate necessary to tho removal by the President of any per- 
son from a civil oflice ; tliis act was raoditled in 180'J and repealed in 1887. 

•' As a requisite demanded by Congress for holding oflice, every candidate waa 
obliged to Bwear that be had not participated in the secession moTement*. Since few 



1868] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 315 

mitted to Congress (1868), over the President's veto, after 
an unrepresented period of seven years/ 

Im.peachment of the President. — The constantly increas- 
ing hostility between the President and Congress came to 
an issue when the former attempted to remove Edwin M. 
Stanton, Secretary of War. This being considered a vio- 
lation of the Tenure of Office Act, the impeachment of the 
President was at last ordered (1868). After a tedious 
trial he was acquitted, the two-thirds majority in the 
Senate necessary for conviction lacking one vote. 

The Fourteenth Amendment (declared adopted July 28, 
1868) guaranteed equal civil rights to all, regardless of race 
or color, and provided for reducing the representation in 
Congress of such States as should deny the suffrage to any 
of their male citizens twenty-one years of age.^ 

New State admitted — Nebraska (p. 359). 

Foreign Affairs. — The French in Mexico. — While the 
United States was absorbed in the Civil War, Napoleon 
III., emperor of France, took advantage of the opportu- 
nity to secure a foothold in America. By the assistance 
of the French army, the imperialists of Mexico defeated 

Southerners could take this " ironclad oath," as it was termed, and since the negroes 
■were now allowed to vote, most of the officeholders were either negroes or Northern 
men who had gone south after the war, and were, therefore, called " carpet-baggers." 
Under the rule of these men, in several Southern States, taxes were heavily increased, 
much public money was spent foolishly or stolen, and the State debts were increased 
by many millions of dollars for which the people received little or no benefit. 

' Georgia was soon accused of trying to evade the conditions of her restoration to 
the Union, and her representatives were again excluded from Congress. Virginia, 
Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia were finally readmitted in 1870. 

2 Except for "participation in rebellion or other crime." The intention was to 
secure negro suffrage by making it to the political interest of the States to allow every 
man to vote; see also the Fifteenth Amendment (p. 319). Nevertheless, since 1890, 
several Southern States have amended their constitutions so as to exclude from voting, 
with some exceptions, those who can not read and write, or who do not pay a certain 
tax ; and a few Northern States also impose educational or other qualifications on their 
voters. By these restrictions many negroes and some others are denied the suffrage ; 
but Congress has not applied the Fourteenth Amendment to any of these cases. 



316 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1867 

the liberals, and Maximiliau, archduke of Austria, was 
chosen emperor. In accordance with the Monroe Doctrine, 
the United States considered this an unfriendly act on the 
part of France. When our government was relieved from 
the pressure of civil strife, it demanded of Napoleon the 
recall of the French troops, and Napoleon recalled them. 
Maximilian, deprived of foreign aid, was defeated, cap- 
tured, and (June 19, 1867) shot by the Mexican libei-als. 
Thus ended the dream of French dominion on this continent. 

Laying of the Atlantic Cahle. — While these great politi- 
cal events were happening, science achieved a peaceful 
triumph whose importance far transcended the victories 
of diplomatic or military skill. A telegraphic cable 18(54 
miles in length was laid from Valentia Bay, in Ii-eland, 
to Heart's Content, Newfoundland.^ The two continents 
were thus brought into almost instant communication. 

Purchase of Alaska (18G7). — Through the diplomacy of 
William H. Seward, Secretary of State, Alaska (p. 349) 
was purchased of Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. Later 
(1884) it was organized as a civil and judicial disti-ict. 

Treati/ with China (1868). — An embassy from the 
Chinese Empire, under the charge of Anson Burlingame, 
American ambassador to China, visited the United States. 
It was the first event of its kind in the history of that 

1 Tho siu'cess of this oiitorprlso. was duo to tho energy of Cyrus W. Field. In 1856 
the line was finished from New York to St. Johns, Newfoundland, a distance of over 
1000 miles. Then, in 1858, after repeated failures, a cable was laid across tho Atlantic. 
But after a few messages had been sent by it, the cable ceased to work. The time and 
money spent seemed a total loss. Mr. Field alone was undismayed. Tho company 
was revived, $:i,000,000 was subscribed, and a new cable was manufactured. In .July, 
1865, the Great Eastern began laying tliis cable, but in mid-ocean it parted and sank to 
the bottom. Again Mr. Field raised a new company, and made a third cal)le. The Great 
Eastern sailed with this in June, 18G6, and successfully laid it. The vessel then sailed 
back to the spot where the cable of 1805 had parted, found the lost cable, brought it to 
the surface, and, splicing it, laid the remaining portion. The two cables were found 
to work admirably. A dispatch has been sent across the ocean by a battery made in a 
gun cap. Since that time many other ocean cables have been laid. 



POLITICAL PARTIES .-^l^ 

exclusive nation. A treaty was perfected, granting to us 
valuable commercial privileges. 

Political Parties. — The Republican party nominated 
General Ulysses S. Grant for President. The Democratic 
party nominated Horatio Seymour, ex-governor of New 
York. The " reconstruction " of Virginia, Mississippi, and 
Texas not yet being complete, these States were not 
allowed to vote. Grant was elected. 

GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (1869-1877)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Pacific Railroads. — The year 1869 
was made memorable by the opening of the first Pacific 
railroad, connectiug Omaha and Sacramento. This great 
highway linked the West to the East by iron bands, car- 
ried thousands of pioneers into the hitherto wild country 
along its course, developed fresh sources of industry and 
mines of wealth, and opened a new route for the silks, 
teas, and spices of Asia. The next year the Northern 
Pacific Railroad, from St. Paul and Lake Superior to Puget 
Sound, was begun ; and as it progressed to completion 
thousands of people moved to new homes along its route. 
The government gave millions of acres of public land to 
these railroads. Other millions of acres were sold for 

1 Hiram Ulysses Grant was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822 ; died 1885. 
He was unwilling to follow liis father's trade, that of a tanner, and at seventeen he 
secured an appointment to West Point. His name having been wrongly registered. 
Grant vainly attempted to set the matter right, but finally accepted his " manifest 
destiny," assumed the change thus forced upon him, and thenceforth signed himself 
" Ulysses Simpson," the latter being his mother's family name. Two years after com- 
pleting his four years' course as cadet, the Mexican war broke out, in which Grant 
conducted himself with great gallantry, receiving especial mention and promotion. 
A few years later he retired to private life, where he remained until the opening of 
the Civil War. He was then appointed to command a company of volunteers, and 
soon afterwards was commissioned as colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Regiment. 
His military and political career was henceforth a part of the countxy's history. A 
plain, quiet, gentle, unostentatious, reticent man, he attracted little attention to him- 
self personally. But his inflexible resolution, that held steadily to its piu-pose through 




318 



1870] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



319 



cash, at higher prices than before ; and still others ^ were 
given to actual settlers tinder the Homestead Act (of 1862) 
which secured 80 or 160 acres to a person who lived on 
the land and cultivated it for five years. 

The Fifteenth Amendment, which says the right of suf- 
frage shall not be denied to any one on account of " race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude," having been 
ratified by the requisite number, of States, was formally 
announced as a part of the Constitution (March 30, 1870), 




AFTER THE CHICAGO FIEE. 

Fires. — 1. A great fire broke out in Chicago, Sunday 
night, October 8, 1871. For two days it raged with tre- 

every delay and disaster ; his fertility of resource to meet each movement of his wary 
opponents ; his power of handling great masses of men, and of maneuvering in concert 
the widely separated Federal armies ; his unruffled calmness, alike in moments of 
defeat and of triumph ; his prompt action in an emergency, as if he had foreseen and 
prepared for it; above all, his snhlime faith in his ultimate and perfect success, in- 
epired his companions in arms with an intense devotion, and made him seem to them 
the yery "incarnation of the cause for which they were fighting." After the close 
of his administration he made the tour of the world, and was everywhere received 
with marked enthusiasm and honor. His tomb is in New York city beside the Hud- 
son River. 

1 From 3,000,000 to 9,000,000 acres every year since 1867. 



320 GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION [1871 

mendous violence, devastatiug nearly five square miles. 
Twenty-five thousand buildings were burned, and 100,000 
persons were rendered homeless. Contributions for the 
sufferers were taken in nearly all parts of the world, and 
over $7,500,000 was raised. 2. During the same autumn 
unusually widespread conflagrations raged in the forests 
of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Entire villages 
were consumed. Fifteen hundred people perished in 
Wisconsin alone. 3. An extensive fire occurred in Boston, 
November 9, 1872. It swept over sixty acres in the cen- 
ter of tlu^ wholesale trade of that city, and destroyed 
$70,00(),()()0 worth of property. 

Railroad Panic. — In the autumn of 1873 Jay Cooke 
& Co., bankers of Philadelphia, having engaged too ex- 
tensively in railroad schemes, failed. A financial crisis 
ensued, and hundreds of prominent firms all over the 
Union were involved in ruin. A settled stringency of the 
money market and a stagnation of business followed. 

Indian Wars. — 1. The Modoc Indians having refused 
to stay on their reservation in Oregon, troops were sent 
against them (1873). They retreated to their fastnesses in 
the lava beds in northern California, where the rough- 
ness of the ground made attack difficult. At a conference 
with i)eace commissioners they treacherously slew two, 
whereupon the war against them was renewed. Finally 
they left the lava beds and were captured. 

2. The Sioux Indians having refused to go upon the 
reservation assigned them by treaty, a force of regular 
troops was sent against them (1876). General Custer led 
the advance with the Seventh Cavalry, while General 
Terry moved up the Big Horn to attack them in the rear. 
On the 25th of June General Custer suddenly came upon 
the enemy. Without waiting for support, he detached 



1876] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



321 



Colonel Reno with three companies to fall upon the back 
of the Indian village, while he charged the savages in 
front. A desperate conflict ensued. General Custer, his 
two brothers, his nephew, and every one of his men were 




THE CCSTER MASSACRE. 



killed. Colonel Eeno was surrounded, but held his ground 
on the bluffs until reenforcements arrived. The Indians 
were soon beaten on every hand. 

Centennial Exhihition. — The year 1875, the hundredth 
anniversary of the first year of the Revolutionary War, 
was marked by various centennial observances. To com- 
memorate the signing of the Declaration of Independence, 
an exhibition of the arts and industries of all nations 
was held at Philadelphia during the summer of 187(i. 
The beautiful grounds of Fairmount Park were the scene 
of this imposing display. The lower floor of the Main 



322 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1870 



Exhibition Building covered more than twenty acres. 
There were more than 200 smaller structures scattered 
over the extensive grounds. The exhibition lasted six 
months, and was visited by nearly ten millions of people. 

New State. — Colorado was admitted to the Union this 
year (187()), and hence is called the " Centennial State." 

Foreign Affairs.— Treat// of Washington. — The refusal of 
the British government to pay for the damages to Ameri- 
can commerce caused by the Alabama and other Confed- 
erate cruisers (p. 300) produced bitter feeling and even 
threatened war. A commission composed of distin- 
guished statesmen and jurists from both countries met 
in Washington and arranged the basis of a treaty be- 
tween the United States and Great Britain, settling this 
and other causes of dispute (1871). According to its pro- 
visions, the claim for losses 
was submitted to a board 



N C OX*V. 



lA^^ 




of arbitrators, who, having 
convened at Geneva, in 
Switzerland, awarded the 
United States $15,500,000. 
A dispute as to the bound- 
ary between the United 
States and British Colum- 
bia, involving the owner- 
ship of a small group of 
islands between Vancouver 
and the mainland, was sub- 
mitted to the emperor of Germany, and was decided in 
favor of the United States.' Thus, happily, all danger of 



:T err I T/O^^I^'Y. 

' -Mm 



6 I'O 20 30 40 uO 



DISPUTED BOUNDARY NEAR VANCOUVER. 



• Also, a dispute about the flsherieB of the northeastern coast— Involving compensa- 
tion claimed forpiivllet^cs granted to American fishermen in Canada and Newfoundland 
— was referred to a commission, which awarded (1878) GreatBritain the sum of $5,500,000. 



1872] POLITICAL PARTIES 323 

war was averted, and the great principle of the settle- 
ment of disputes by peaceful arbitration rather than by 
the sword was firmly established. 

Political Parties. — Before the end of Grant's first term 
there arose dissensions in the Republican party. In 1872 
the Liberal Republicans — those opposed to the admin- 
istration and in favor of a more liberal treatment of the 
South — nominated Horace Greeley^ of New York for 
President, and this nomination was endorsed by the Dem- 
ocratic party. But the regular Republicans nominated 
and reelected President Grant. 

Four years later, the Republican party nominated Ruth- 
erford B. Hayes of Ohio, and the Democratic party nomi- 
nated Samuel J. Tilden of New York.- This presidential 

1 Horace Greeley was bom at Amherst, N. H., 1811 ; died 1872. At two years of 
age lie began to study the newspapers given him for amusement, and at four could 
read anything placed before liiiu. At six lie was soraewliat versed in geography and 
arithmetic, and had read the entire Bible. His passion for boots increased witli his 
years, and in early youth he became a printer, learning the trade in East Poultney, 
Vt. In 1831 he went to New York, and, Franlil in-like, walked the streets in search of 
work. When he secured it ho showed marked diligence and integrity. Ten years 
later he founded the New York Tribune, and as editor of this newspaper he exerted 
a wide influence the rest of his life. He served in Congress in 1848-49. When civil 
war seemed imminent ho advocated a peaceable division of the country ; but after it 
opened he urged a vigorous prosecution of hostilities. At the close of the war he 
pleaded for immediate conciliation, and was a signer of the bail bond which restored 
Jelferson Davis to liberty after two years' imprisonment in Fort Monroe. Just before 
the close of the presidential canvass his wife died, and this, together with the deser- 
tion of friends and the excitement of the contest, unsettled his mind. He was taken 
to a private asylum, where he died a few weeks after the election. 

2 The principal political questions which agitated the country during this cam- 
paign were the Southern policy of the government, and civil service reform. (1) It 
was held on one side that negroes and Republicans in the South were intimidated by 
force and prevented from voting, and that the presence of tlie United States troops 
was necessary to the preservation of the rights of the citizens, free discussion, a free 
ballot, and an enforcement of the laws. It was asserted, on the other side, that the 
use of the troops for such purposes was unconstitutional ; that the intimidation was 
only imaginary, or could be readily controlled by the local authorities ; and that the 
presence of the military provoked violence and was a constant insult and menace to 
the States. (2) President Jackson, as we have seen (p. 205), introduced into our 
politics the principle of "rotation in ofBce." This policy steadily gained favor until 
Marcy'B maxim, "To the victors belong the spoils," became the commonly accepted 



324 HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION [1876 

campaign was so hotly contested, aud such irregularities 
were charged against the elections in Oregon, South Caro- 
lina, Florida, and Louisiana, that both parties claimed the 
victory. The Coustitution does not expressly state how 
the electoral votes shall be counted (read the Twelfth 
Amendment). A rule which Congress had made was un- 
satisfactory, but as the Senate was now Republican and 
the House Democratic, they were unable for a long time 
to agree on a new rule. Finally, in ordet to settle the dis- 
pute. Congress referred the contested election returns to 
a Joint Electoral Commission, composed of five sena- 
tors, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme 
Court. This body, by a vote of eight to seven, decided 
the contest in each case in favor of the Republicans. This 
made the electoral vote for Hayes 185, and for Tilden 184 ; 
and Hayes was therefore declared to be elected. 



HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION (1877-1881)1 

Domestic Affairs. — United States Troops in the South 
Withdraum. — President Hayes's Southern policy was one 
of conciliation. The troops which had hitherto sustained 
the Republican State governments in South Carolina and 

view, and after every iiuportaut election the snccesaful party was accustomed to 
fill even the menial ottices of govcrnnieut witli its favorites. Under such a system, 
the qualification of the applicant was of much less importance than the service he had 
done the party. Ilajes promised to make " no dismissal except for cause, and no pro- 
motion except for merit." 

' Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, 1822; died 1893. At sixteen he 
entered Keny(tn CoUej^e, where he was graduated as valedictorian of his class. After 
passing through the Harvard Law Bchool, he was admitted to the bar in 1845. At the 
breaking out of the Civil War, he received a commission as mi\ior of the Twenty-third 
Ohio Volunteers. In camp he proved attentive to the wants of his men ; in battle ho 
inspired them with his own dasliing bravery. While yet in tlie field he was elected to 
Congress, where he serN'cd two terms. Soon after, he was chosen governor of Ohio, 
being twice reelected — the last time after a brilliant hard-money campaign which 
attracted national attention. 



1877] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 325 

Louisiana were withdrawn, and Democratic officials at 
once took control of the local affairs. 

Railroad Strike (1877). — In many branches of industry 
workmen had sometimes " struck " in attempts to improve 
the conditions of their employment; but up to this time 
the strikes had affected few besides the workmen and 
employers immediately concerned. Now, in the summer 
after Hayes's inauguration, occurred the first great strike 
that caused widespread injury to the general public. Be- 
ginning at Pittsburg on the Baltimore and Ohio Eailroad, 
it quickly spread to other lines and paralyzed traffic on 
nearly all the principal roads in the Northern States. 
Alarming riots occurred in many cities, and regular 
troops and militia were required to disperse the rioters. 
At Pittsburg scores of lives were lost and several million 
dollars' worth of property was destroyed before order was 
finally restored. 

Changes in Currency. — In 1873 Congress had demonetized 
silver, and made gold the sole standard of currency ; but 
now, in 1878, the Bland- Allison Bill was passed, making 
silver dollars also a legal tender.^ Then, in 1879, the gov- 
ernment resumed specie payments — that is, began to pay 
gold for its paper money (p. 308) ; and, for the first time 
since 1862, gold sold at par. 

Political Parties. — The Republicans elected James A. 
Garfield President, and Chester A. Arthur Vice President. 
The Democratic candidate for President was Winfield S. 

1 The law provided also for the purchase and coinage, each month, of from $2,000,000 
to $4,000,000 worth of silver. An act of 1890 provided instead that the Secretary of the 
Treasury should buy each month 4,500,000 ounces of silver. These acts caused the use 
of much silver coin, but they did not restore silver to its original position beside gol(i 
as a standard money. Before 1873 any one could take either metal, in bullion, to the 
mint and receive the same amount in coin ; that is, there was free coinage of both 
metals, and the monetary standard was bimetallic. Since 1873 there has been free 
coinage of gold only. 



326 GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION [1881 

Hancock of Pennsylvania; the Greenback-Labor, James 
B. Weaver of Iowa. 



GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION (1881-1885)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Assassination .of President Garfield 
(1881). — On the morning of July 2 the country was 
shocked b}' the news that the President, while standing in 
the railroad station at Washington, had been shot by a 
disappointed office seeker. The startling tidings pro- 
duced an effect similar to that occasioned by the death of 
Lincoln. The wounded President lay for weeks hovering 
between life and death, an example of patience, fortitude, 
and courage. He died on the 19th of September. Vice- 
President Arthur now took the oath of office and assumed 
the duties of President. 

I James Abram Gailleld was horn in Ciiyahopa County, Ohio, 1831. His father 
cleared a Biiiall fartu in wliat was tlion a wildernesa, and, dying Boon after the birth 
of his illustrious son, left his family in great poverty. Brought up amid stern 
surroundings, Ms education was neglected; but in his eighteenth year he was seized 
with a desire for knowledge, and during one or two winters attended a school at some 
distance from his home, paying liis way by working afternoons and holidays at such 
einploymentas he could procure. Afterniastering the elementary branches, ho taught 
a district school, meanwhile preparing himself for college. He entered Williams 
College in 1854, from which he was graduated with credit. Soon after, he accepted a 
professorship in an Institute at Hiram, Ohio. On the outbreak of the war Garfield 
offered his services to his country, and was commissioned as lieutenant colonel, and 
later as colonel of the Forty-second Ohio Volunteers. He took part in the siege of 
Corinth and in the battle of Chickamauga, and was promoted miijor general. While 
in the field he was elected to Congress. In this new sphere, he found opportimity for 
the development of rare political abilities. As a member of some of the most impor- 
tant committees of the House, he molded and influenced many important economic 
measures, and was in 1871 recognized as tlie leader of his party in the House. An 
earnest and diligent student, a profound thinker and an able orator, he bi-onght to the 
presidency a wealth of knowledge, accomplishments, and experience such as few of 
our Presidents have possessed. 

Chester Alan Arthur was boi-n at Fairfield, Vt., 1830; died 1886. He was gradu- 
ated at Union College (1848), and, having studied law, was admitted to the bar, 
•where he soon obtained a high position. For a time during the Civil War he served 
as quartermaster general of the State of New York. In 1871 he was appointed col- 
lector of the port of New York city, and retained this post six years. 



1882] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 327 

Chinese Exclusion (1882). — Many thousand Chinese hav- 
ing come to the Pacific coast of our country, great oppo- 
sition arose to their continued immigration/ Finally 
a law was made forbidding the admission of any Chinese 
laborers for ten years. 

A Civil Service Bill was passed (1883). Under this law 
a commission appointed by the President assists him in 
making and enforcing rules to govern civil service 
appointments and promotions. Applicants for positions 
in the " classified service " compete in examinations held 
under the supervision of the commission. By the law of 
1883 and by orders of the Presidents who have held office 
since that time, a very large proportion of the government 
employees have been included in the classified service and 
thus removed from the operation of the spoils system (see 
p. 323, note 2). Civil service reform laws have also been 
adopted in many of the States. 

Letter Postage was reduced from three cents to two 
cents for each half ounce in 1883, and in 1885 to two 
cents an ounce.^ 

New Navy Begun. — About the close of the Civil War 
the United States was the strongest naval power in the 
world. But with the return of peace our naval develop- 
ment stopped, and our navy gradually fell into decay, 
while foreign navies made rapid progress. Soon our navy 
was almost the weakest in the world. During this admin- 

1 The BurliDgame treaty with China (p. 316) recognized the right of free migra- 
tion. Therefore President Hayes once vetoed a bill to exclude the Chinese, because 
their exclusion, by breaking the treaty, would have been an affront to a friendly 
nation. But negotiations were promptly begun, resulting in a modiflcation of the 
treaty (1880) whereby the United States may suspend, but not prohibit, the immigra- 
tion of Chinese laborers. 

2 In 1792 the rate for letters was from six to twenty-flve cents, according to the 
distance carried ; in 1845, live cents for each half ounce if carried less than 300 miles, 
ten cents if over 300 miles ; in 1851, three cents if less than 3000 miles. 



328 CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION [1884 

istration a small beginning was made in building modern 
war ships, and thereafter a continuous and rapid growth 
of our new navy was maintained. To-day only a few 
countries are better prepared than ours for hostilities at 
sea. 

Political Parties. — The nominees for President (1884) 
were: Democratic, Gi'over Cleveland of New York; 
Republican, James G. Blaine of Maine; People's party, 
B. F. Butler of Massachusetts; National Prohibition 
party, J. P. St. John of Kansas. The Democratic candi- 
dates were elected. 

CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1885-1889)* 

The inauguration of the new President brought the 
Democratic party into power for the first time since 
Buchanan left the White House, shortly before the out- 
break of the Civil War. 

Domestic Affairs. — A Presidential Succession Lmv was 
passed (188{)), providing that if, at any time, there should 
be no President or Vice President, the office of President 
should devolve upon a member of the Cabinet,^ the order 

1 Grover Cleveland was born in Caldwell, X. .T., 1S37; died 1008. When he was four 
years old, his father, a I'resbyterian clergyman, moved to central New York. It waa 
before the days of railroads, and the journey waa made liy schooner up the Iludson to 
Albany, and thence by packet on the Erie Canal. Young (irovcr was pursuing his 
academic studies when his father's death left him, at sixteen, •without a dollar to con- 
tinue his education. Having made several efforts to earn his living, he borrowed 
twenty-tive dollars and started west to seek his fortune. At Buffalo he entered a 
law office, began on Blackstone at once, and in is.W was admitted to the bar. His 
marked industry, unpretentious courage, and unswerving honesty won hjm rapid 
promotion. In 1863 he entered political life, tilling, in succession, the offices of assist- 
ant district attorney, sheriff, and mayor. Being nominated as the candidate of 
reform, he was elected, in 1882, as governor of New York by a plurality of 192,354, a vote 
which gave him a national reputation. 

iiThis law replaced an earlier one, by which the office would devolve instead upon 
the president pro tempore of the Senate, and then upon the Speaker of the House of 
Bepresentatlves. 



1887] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 329 

of succession being as follows : the Secretaries of State^ 
Treasury, and War, the Attorney General, the Postmaster 
General, the Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary of 
the Interior. Thus it is made practically certain that the 
presidency shall never be vacant. 

The Electoral Count Act (1887) provides an elaborate 
set of rules to be followed by Congress in counting the 
votes of electors for President and Vice President,^ after 
each presidential election. This is designed to prevent 
any future trouble like that occasioned by the disputed 
returns in the Hayes-Tilden contest (p. 324). 

Strikes and Labor Disturhances greatly injured business 
prosperity. In many instances railroad traffic was sus- 
pended, switches were misplaced, trains derailed, and 
valuable property destroyed. In Chicago (May 4, 1886), 
during the excitement caused by a strike of 40,000 work- 
men, the police attempted to scatter a body of anarchists, 
when a bomb was thrown, resulting in the death of seven 
policemen and the injury of many others. 

Earthquake Shocks, beginning on the evening of August 
31, 1886, and continuing at intervals for months, wrought 
special damage at Charleston, S. C. Many people were 
killed or wounded by falling masonry; and public and 
private buildings, venerable churches, and historic edifices 
were destroyed or irretrievably damaged. 

The Statue of Liberty.^ — The statue of Liberty Enlight- 



1 Each State through its own govemineut is expected to decide who are the persons 
chosen electors in that State, and its decision, if rendered, is flual. But if both houses 
of Congress, voting separately, reject any elector's vote as not being legally cast, it is 
thrown out. In case of conflicting returns where the State has failed to decide, only 
those votes can he counted which are accepted by both houses of Congress ; — if the 
two houses disagree, all the conflicting votes are thrown out. 

2 This statue, the work of the French sculptor Bartholdi, is 151 feet high, and stands 
on a pedestal of about the same height. The uplifted torch in Liberty's hand is thus 
about 300 feet above the ground. 

B. HIST. U. 8.— 20 



330 



CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION 



[188G 







',■*! »? 



"v'l^^lii 



ening tlie World, presented by Frenchmen to this country, 
and erected on an island in New York harbor, was un- 
veiled in the presence 
of many distinguished 
guests (October, 1886). 

Literstate Commerce Act 
(1887).— The vast in- 
crease in the extent and 
use of railroads made the 
great railroad companies 
very influential in many 
branches of business. 
Favored shippers Avere 
given special low rates, 
enabling thern to crush 
their competitors. In 
many cases a lower rate 
was charged for long dis- 
tances than for interme- 
diate short distances. Under the clause of the Constitu- 
tion which gives Congress power to regulate commerce 
between the States, an Interstate Commerce Law was 
enacted which forbade these practices on all railroads 
operating in two or more States, and established an 
Interstate Commerce Commission, with power to make 
such railroads treat all patrons fairly. 

Political Parties. — The question of the tariff (see pp. 
201, 202) was once more brought into politics. The 
Democrats, who advocated a reduction of the duties on 
imports, renominated Grover Cleveland for President; 
the Eepublicans, in favor of protection, nominated Benja- 
min Harrison of Indiana. Besides these there were several 
other candidates in the field. Harrison was elected. 



THE STATUE OF LIBERTY. 



1889] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 331 

HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1889-1893)1 

Domestic Affairs. — The Johnstown Flood (May 31, 1889) 
was caused by the breakiug of a reservoir dam during a 
severe freshet. An immense avalanche of water swept 
through the Con'emaugh valley, in Pennsylvania, over- 
whelming the city of Johnstown, destroying more than 
$10,000,000 in property, and bringing death to many hun- 
dreds of people,. 

The Tariff,— In 1890 the Republican majority in Con- 
gress passed the McKinley Act, which raised the average 
rate of duties.^ 

Pensions. — United States soldiers disabled in the service, 
and the widows and orphans of soldiers, have long been 
generously pensioned. Finally (1890) pensions were 
granted to all soldiers unable to earn a living by manual 
labor, whether or not their injuries were received in the 
service. A few years later the pension roll contained 

1 Beujamin Harrison was bom at North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1833 ; died 1901. His 
father was John Scott Harrison, farmer; his grandfiither, William Henry Harrison, 
gOTernor, general, and President (see p. 210) ; and his great-grandfather, Benjamin 
Harrison, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Until about the 
age of fourteen years, Benjamin was educated .mainly at home. He then studied 
for two years at Farmer's College, near Cincinnati, after which he entered Miami 
University, where ho gTaduated in 1852, Choosing the law as his profession, he was 
duly admitted to the bar, and established himself in Indianapolis. Upon the breaking 
out of the Civil War he enlisted in the service of his country, in which he remained 
till the close of hostilities. Commissioned as colonel of the Seventieth Indiana Vol- 
unteers, he was brevetted as brigadier general for ability, -energy, and gallantry. He 
was greatly beloved by his men, who bestowed on him the soubriquet of " Little Ben." 
In 1881 he was elected to the United States Senate, where he displayed great ability 
as a statesman. 

'• This act also made provision for reciprocity ; that is, for an exchange of favors, in 
the way of taking off duty on certain foreign goods, with such countries as should by 
treaty make similar concessions to us. — Just before this (1889, 1890), a Pan-American 
Congress, or Conference, consisting of repi'esentatives from the various republics of 
America, met in Washington and discussed means of bringing the countries into closer 
economic relations and preventing strife between them. Though the immediate i esults 
of the conference were unimportant, it accomplis'hed much in directing attention to an 
important problem. 



332 HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1890 

nearly 1,000,000 names, the average pension being about 
$140 a year. 

Ballot Reform. — Since 1888 most of the States have 
adopted the Australian ballot system, with various modifi- 
cations. The main object of this widespread reform was 
to diminish corrupt practices in elections; and this was 
effected (1) by adopting official ballots printed at public 
expense, and (2) by enforcing on the voter absolute privacy 
in preparing his ballot for voting.' 

Oklahoma. — A part of the Indian Territory, called Okla- 
homa, was purchased from the Indians and thrown open 
to settlement (April 22, 1889). In anticipation of this, 
prospective settlers had encamped on the border, and at 
the appointed signal began a mad rush for the best loca- 
tions. Before night Oklahoma had a population of some 
fifty thousand, towns had sprung up, and even newspapers 
had been printed. The boundaries of Oklahoma were 
afterwards extended. It was made a Territory in 1890. 

Indian Troubles. — In the autumn of 1890 the Sioux In- 
dians of the Northwest became restive. In December sev- 
eral thousand excited Indians were encamped at Wounded 
Knee, in South Dakota. An attempt to disarm the war- 
riors resulted in a battle on the 28th, in which 200 were 
killed, including many Indian women and children ; but 
within twenty days the Indians were all disarmed. 

Labor Troubles resulted in increased bitterness of feel- 
ing between labor and capital. In the summer of 1892, 
through disagreement as to wages, a lockout ^ occurred in 

' TLo older method of voting, though by ballot, did not sccuro secrecy to such voters 
aB ■were exposed to intimidation, nor enforce it against such as wislud to nell their 
votes and show how they voted. Each party provided its own ballots, and a ballot was 
often kept iu sight from the moment it was placed in the voter's hand until it was cast. 

'^ In a lockout the employer stops work by discharging his workmen, while in a 
strike the workmen make the first move. But as the result is the same in either case* 
all such cessations of work are commonly called strikes. 



18921 POLITICAL PARTIES 333 

the great steel foundries near Pittsburg. At Homestead 
the striking workmeu refused to leave the premises, and 
the employing company hired a force of private detectives 
to eject them. A riot ensued in which many were killed 
or wounded. The militia were then summoned, and order 
was gradually restored. Bloody riots took place also at 
the mines in Idaho and in Tennessee. 

Cliinese Exclusion (1892). — The law prohibiting the immi- 
gration of Chinese laborers (p. 327) was reenacted for an- 
other ten-year period, and was made stricter than before. 
All Chinamen in the country were obliged to obtain cer- 
tificates showing their right to be here, or else to leave. 

Neiv States admitted — North and South Dakota, Wash- 
ington, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming (p. 359). 

An International Copyright Law was enacted by Congress 
in 1891, after more than half a century of debate. It affords 
copyright protection to foreign authors of such nations as 
secure like protection to Americans. 

Political Parties. — The tariff was still the important 
issue in 1892. The Democrats once more nominated Grover 
Cleveland for President, and the Republicans nominated 
Benjamin Harrison. The People's party, which advocated 
legislation favoring the farmers, nominated James B. 
Weaver, and the Prohibition party nominated John 
Bidwell. Cleveland was elected/ 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 

Domestic Affairs. — The World''s Columbian Exposi- 
Hon, in celebration of the four hundredth anniversary of 

> The electoral vote was: for Cleveland, 277 ; Harriisou, 145; Weaver, 22. This was 
the first time since the Civil War that electoral votes went to any party other than the 
Republican and Democratic. 



336 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 



[1893 



the discovery of America, haviDg been dedicated in Octo- 
ber, 1892, was opened to the public in May, 1893. This 
great industrial exhibition was created by act of Congress, 
and was held in Chicago. All nations participated. The 
cost of the exposition was in excess of $)J0,000,0()0, and 




world's COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 



during the six months of its continuance the turnstiles 
recorded over 20,000,000 paid admissions. 

Extra Session of Congress (189'}). — Various causes 
having brought on a monetary crisis, President Cleveland 
called a special session of Congress. The relative values 
of gold and silver had so changed by this time that the 
metal in a silver dollar was worth only about half as much 
as a gold dollar. Many people believed that there were too 
many silver dollars in circulation, too many for the gov^- 
ernment to keep at their face value. Finally Congress 
repealed the law of 1890 requiring the government to buy 
4,500,000 ounces of silver each month. 



1894] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 337 

Reduction of the Tariff (1894:). — At the next regular ses- 
sion of Congress the average tariff was slightly reduced by 
the Gorman- Wilson Act. 

Repeal of the Force Bill. — For many years presidential 
and congressional elections in the Southern States had 
been placed, in certain conditions, under the supervision 
of men appointed by federal authority, the aim being 
to protect the negro vote. The law providing for this 
supervision was now repealed (1894), leaving the elections 
in each State to be controlled by State authority, as they 
were before the Civil War. 

A Great Railroad Strike (1894) was occasioned by 
trouble between the Pullman Car Company and its em- 
ployees. The American Railroad Union having taken up 
the quarrel (June 26), more railway employees quit work 
than in any other strike in history, and for some weeks 
little business was done on the Western railroads. The 
focus of the strike was Chicago, the greatest railroad 
center in the world. Some property having been de- 
stroyed, and the postal service interfered with, President 
Cleveland sent troops there to restore order, against the 
protest of the governor of Illinois, who denied the right 
of the federal government to interfere except on request 
of the State. Then, the leaders of the strike having 
been arrested for disobeying injunctions of the federal 
courts, the strike collapsed. 

New State admitted — Utah (p. 360). 

Foreign Affairs Hawaii (hah wf ee). — In January, 

1893, the queen of the Hawaiian Islands' had been 

1 When discovered, tbe Hawaiian Islands were governed by a number of independ- 
ent chiefs. But about the beginning of the nineteenth century Kamehameha (kah- 
jmahah'ma hah) succeeded in extending his rule over the whole group, and founded a 
kingdom which lasted nearly a hundred years. At liis death the ancient worship of 
idols and many cruel heathenish practices were overthrown. In 1820 the first mission- 



338 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 



[1894 



deposed ; the Hawaiian revolutionists applied for annex- 
ation to onr country. President Cleveland believed 
that the revolution- 



SCALE0FUILE8 

:!u i(i eu 



HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 




ists had been im- 
properly aided by 
the American min- 
ister, and he tried to 
have the queen re- 
stored; but the Hawaiians in power 
made the islands a republic (July 4, 
1894). 

Tlie Venezuelan Boundary. — In 1895 
a boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana 
seemed likely to lead to war. Cleveland, following the 
Monroe Doctrine (p. 200), protested to Great Bi-itain 
against any seizure of Venezuelan territory. He ap- 
pointed a commission to ascertain the true boundary; 
but before it could i-eport, Great Britain and Venezuela 
signed a treaty of arbitration (February 2, 1897), and 
the dispute was amicably adjusted. 

Political Parties. — The leading candidates for Presi- 
dent and Vice President in 1896 were: Republican, in 
favor of the existing gold monetary standard, William 
McKinley of Ohio, and Garret A. Hobart of New Jersey ; 
Democratic, in favor of free coinage of silver, William J. 
Bryan of Nebraska, and Arthur Sewall of Maine ; Peo- 
ple's party, William J. Bryan, and Thomas E. Watson of 
Georgia; National Democratic (gold standard), John M. 
Palmer of Illinois, and Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky. 
The Republican nominees were elected. 

aries arrived from tlic United States, and thereafter the people made rapid progress 
in education and the arts of civilization. A eonsiderable number of foroif^ners, of 
various nationalities, also came to the islands to live; and in 1840 the kJJig promul. 
gated a coustitutiou. 



1897] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 339 



McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901)1 

Domestic Affairs. — The Tariff. — An extra session of 
Congress was called to meet on March 15, 1897, for the 
purpose of Increasing the revenue. A tariff bill for reve- 
nue and protection, similar in many respects to the 
McKinley Bill of 1890, was introduced by the Republi- 
cans, and was made a law July 24, 1897. 

During the war with Spain Congress passed an act still 
further increasing the revenue (p. 346). 

Gold Standard Act. — In March, 1900, an act was passed 
expressly adopting the gold standard of money, and mak- 
ing it the duty of the treasury to maintain all our money 
on a parity with gold. Ever since 1879 (p. 325) this parity 
had been maintained, but it was partly through the exer- 
cise of discretion by the Secretary of the Treasury, who 
might, within the letter of the law, have paid United 
States notes and bonds in silver coin instead of in gold. 
The act of 1900, however, left the secretary no discretion 
in regard to United States notes ; at the same time it pro- 
vided for refunding most of the bonded debt by the issue 
of thirty-year bonds payable in gold and bearing two per 
cent interest. It also allowed national banks to issue 
banknotes up to the face value of United States bonds 
deposited by them in the treasury. Previously the 
banks had been allowed to issue banknotes up to only 
ninety per cent of the value of the bonds deposited. 

1 William McKinley was born at Niles, Trumbull County, Ohio, in 1843 ; died 1901. 
After a course of study in the village academy at Poland, Ohio, he entered the junior class 
of Allegheny College in 18fiO; but on the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted as a pri- 
vate in the Union army. Through bravery and meritorious service !;e rose to the rank 
of captain and brevet major. WTien peace was restored he studied law, and in 1867 
began practice in Canton, Ohio, which was thereafter his home. His eloquence and 
ability in debate soon secured him political prominence, and for seven consecutive 




^a^^/2- 




1898] THE WAR WITH SPAIN 341 

The Galveston Disaster. — Galveston, the chief seaport 
of Texas, lies on a low island between the Gulf of Mexico 
and Galveston Bay. Driven by hurricane winds, the 
waters rose until the entire city was flooded, while great 
waves swept over the island, demolishing many houses 
and stores and drowning thousands of people (September 
8 and 9, 1900). Relief for the survivors poured in from 
all quarters, and the undaunted citizens made haste to 
restore their city. 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN (1898) 

Causes. — Cuba, the "Pearl of the Antilles," though 
abounding in natural resources, was not prosperous under 
the rule of Spain, and from time to time the Cuban people, 
both black and white, rebelled against the government 
imposed on them. The last of these rebellions' began in 
February, 1895, and though Spain sent in all 200,000 sol- 
diers to Cuba, she failed in over three years to restore 
order. The rebels were greatly aided by men, rifles, can- 
non, ammunition, and other supplies carried to them by 
ships from our country ; but our government stopped such 
expeditions whenever it could. 

The insurgents soon formed the Republic of Cuba, but 

terms (1877-91) he was sent as a Republican representative to Congress, though once 
unseated by his political opponents. He was especially noted as an advocate of a 
protective tariflf, and as he was chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, his 
name was given to the tariff act of 1890 (p. 331). In the full of 1890 ho was defeated for 
Congress on account of changes in the make-up of his district ; but the next year he 
was chosen governor of Ohio, and in 1893 was reelected bj' an increased majority. At 
the hour of his funeral, throughout the country all trafhc was stopped for a few min- 
utes; even steamers and railroad trains came to a standstill wherever they happened 
to be. No such tribute had ever before been paid to any one's memory. 

1 The most serious of the earlier rebellions began in 1868 and lasted ten years, dur- 
ing which time Spain sent 80,000 soldiers to Cuba. The last of the rebels laid down 
their arms after receiving promises of reform in the Cuban government which were 
not kept. 



342 



MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1898 



sought in vain to secure recognition from the United 
States. Our government, however, warned Spain that 
the struggle could not go on indefinitely without inter- 
vention on our part. Our citizens had millions of dollars 
invested in Cuban property, and an important commerce 
which was being rapidly ruined through the devastation 
of the island. Moreover, our people were shocked at the 
suffering of the reconcentrados — Cubans who had been 
compelled by the Spanish general, Weyler, under pain of 
death, to leave their country homes and concentrate at 
the large towns, where they wore hemmed in by the gar- 
risons and left to starve. Tens of thousands of them thus 




THE ■^yilECK OF Till-- .MAlSi,. 

miserably perished, though some supplies were sent to 
them from the United States. 

On the night of February 15, 1898, our battleship Maine 
was blown up in the harbor of Havana, with the loss 
of 260 of her crew. From that moment the hope of a 
peaceable settlement of the Cu])an i)rol)lem rapidly wjined, 
and both nations prepared for war. Congress passed 
a resolution demanding the withdrawal of Spain from 
Cuba, and authorizing the use of our army and navy 



1898] 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN 



343 



to compel her, if necessary (April 19). The President, hav- 
ing signed this, sent a copy of it as an ultimatum to Spain 
(April 21), and war Ijegan on the same day. 

Fighting in the Philippines. — Although the avowed 
object of the struggle was merely to compel Spain to 
abandon Cuba, the first blow, and also the last, were struck" 




BATTLE OF MANILA BAT. 



at her on the opposite side of the globe, in her colony of 
the Philippine Islands (map, p. 351). There, in Manila 
Bay, Commodore George Dewey's squadron completely 
destroyed a Spanish fleet, killing and wounding over 600 
men, while not a ship on our side was lost, and only 7 men 
were wounded (May 1).^ And there the city of Manila was 
captured through the joint operations of Dewey's ships 
and of a United States army that had been transported 

1 Fqi- this brilliant victory Dewey received the thanks of Consress, and was pro- 
moted rear admiral and afterwards admiral. 



344 



McKlNLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1898 







^o^^to '^i.o*' 



^^^>- 



across the Pacific, commanded by General Wesley Merritt 
(August 13). This battle was fought, as we shall see, one 
day after the cessation of hostilities had been ordered, 
but before news of it had arrived at the PhiHppines. 

Fighting in the West Indies. — The other battles of this 
war were fought in the West Indies. Throughout the 
struggle our navy maintained a blockade of Havana and 
the western end of Cuba, and this led to the capture of a 
considerable number of Spanish vessels. But the decisive 

conflicts occurred 
near the well forti- 
fied harbor of San- 
tiago (sahn te ah'- 
go), in the eastern 
end of the island. 
Here, in the latter 
part of May, a 
Spanish squadron 
commanded by Admiral Cervera (ther va'rah) took refuge, 
and was blockaded by our ships under Commodore Win- 
field S. Schley (sll), and later also by those under Rear 
Admiral William T. Sampson, who had the command of the 
entire fleet. In an attempt to make the blockade complete, 
the collier Merrimac was sunk in the narrow channel lead- 
ing to the harbor. This feat was peiformed, amid a storm 
of shot and shell from the forts, V)y Lieutenant Kichmond 
P. Hobson and a crew of seven, who were taken prisoners 
and afterwards exchanged. 

Battles near Sant'tago. — An army of about 18,000 men, 
under General William R. Shafter, was now landed on the 
coast, not far from Santiago. After severe fighting, it 
took and held the outer defenses of the city, including 
the earthworks of El Caney (cah na') and San Juan (sahn 



CUBA AND PORTO RICO. 



189S] 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN 



345 



hoo ahn') Hill (July 1, 2).^ Our total loss in this campaign 
was about 250 killed and 1400 wounded and missing ; the 
Spanish loss was believed to be greater. 

Battle of July 3. — As the city seemed sure to fall, Cervera's 
six ships sailed out of the harbor past the Merrlinac enn] 




THE OREGON AT SANTIAGO. 



tried to escape ; but they were at once attacked by the 
blockading fleet, and were soon sunk or stranded, shattered 
wrecks, on the shore of Cuba.^ Besides the many killed, 
about 1800 Spanish sailors were taken prisoners ; of our 
men only one was killed and a few wounded. 



1 In this action tlie " Rough Riders " played an important part. They wcro a regi- 
ment of volunteer cavalry recruited largely from Western cowboys and Eastern ath- 
letes. They were led up San Juan HiU by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. 

2 When the Spanish fleet appeared, it happened that Admiral Sampson, with hii 
flagship the Netv York, was several miles to the east, on his way to a conference with 
General Shaffer. Schley's flagship, the BrooMyn, was at the west end of the blockad- 
ing fleet, and as the Spaniards tried to escape by sailing west, the Brooldyn was 
in the thickest of the tight. Another ship that distinguished herself was the Oregon. 
Though she was a heavy battleship, and had recently made the long trip from San 
Francisco around South America, she steamed as swiftly as a cruiser, and helped to 
capture the last and swiftest of the Spanish ships. 



346 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1898 

Surrender of Sant'uKjo (July 17). — Rather thau iucur au 
assault on Santiago, the Spanish surrendered the city, to- 
gether with the eastern end of Cuba and an army of 
about 22,000 men, whi(;h we had 16 transport to Spain. 
A few days later General Nelson A. Miles set off with an 
army of about 20,000 to seize Porto Rico. He had occu- 
pied a large part of the island without much opposition, 
when hostilities came to an end. 

Peace. — On August 12, 1898, a protocol was signed at 
Washington, providing for the cessation of hostilities and 
a meeting, at Paris, of commissioners to negotiate a for- 
mal treaty of peace. The protocol also provided for the 
abandonment of Cuba by Spain, and the cession of Porto 
Rico and one of the Ladrones to the United States. The 
disposition of the Philippines was left to be decided in the 
final treaty of peace ; Manila in the meanwhile was to be 
occupied by the United States. 

The treaty was completed and signed at Paris, Decem- 
ber 10, 1898, and within a few months was ratified by 
both governments (by the United States Februaiy 6, 
1899). The most important additions to the terms con- 
tained in the protocol were the cession of the Philippines 
by Spain, the payment of $20,000,000 to Spain, and the 
naming of Guam as the member of the Ladrone group 
referred to in the protocol. 

The Cost of the War was mot chiefly by the sale of 
bonds to the extent of $200,000,000. J^esides this increase 
in the public debt. Congress imposed a number of ad- 
ditional taxes, including many stamp taxes, an inheritance 
tax, and a duty on tea. 

Two hundred thousand volunteers were enlisted at the 
beginning of the war, and many of them saw service be- 
side the regulars in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. 



1898] INSULAR AFFAIRS 347 

Insular Affairs. — The Annexation of the Hawaiian Is- 
lands was unexpectedly hastened during the progress of 
the war with Spain. Even before the protocol was signed, 
the war operations in Asiatic waters, and the possibility 




NATIVE HOUSE, HAWAII. 



that the Philippines might fall into the possession of the 
United States, made clear the importance of the Hawaiian 
Islands as a naval and military station. The joint resolu- 
tion of annexation was passed by Congress July 6, 1898, 
and its terms were promptly ratified by the Hawaiian 
government. Two years later Congress made the islands 
a Territory, and extended the Constitution and laws of 
the United States over them, so that they form part of our 
country (April 27, 1900). 

Tutiiila (too too ee'lah) and some small neighboring 
islands were made the property of the United States by 
treaty with Germany and Great Britain (1900). Tutuila 



348 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1899 

has the best harbor in the Samoan islands, and is an im- 
portant naval and coaling station/ 

Wake is a small, rocky island in the direct route from 
Hawaii to Hongkong. The United States took possession 
of it (February, 1899), in anticipation of its value as a 
station for any cable line that might be laid to connect 
with the Philippines. 

Porto li'ico belonged to the United States a year and a 
half before Congress provided a civil government for it.'^ 
A new question had come in with the new island posses- 
sions : Were they parts of the United States, and as such 
under the Constitution I or were they merely colonial 
possessions and outside the force of the Constitution? 
After a long and vigorous contest, Congress passed an act 
(April 11, 1900) providing for a government to be exer- 
cised by a governor and an executive council appointed 
by the President; a house of delegates elected by the 
people of the island; and a supreme court appointed by 
the President. It also levied a temporary tariff on im- 
ports from Porto Rico into the United States, and on 
imports from the United States into Porto Rico ; and this 



In 1889 the fourteen islands constituting the Samoan group -were hy agreement 
taken under the joint protection of Great Britain, Germany, and the United States. 
Inuring the 1«n jeais following, troubles growing out of the rivalry of chiefs for the 
kingship of the islands led to vexatious difTerenccs hetween Great IJritaiu and the 
United States on one side, and Germany on the other. In April, 1899, the three 
powers appointed a commission to settle the difflculties. The result was a treaty by 
wliich Great Britain gave up lier interest, and the islands -were divided between 
Germany and t'.ie United States. 

'■i The oceuiTenco of a destructive hurricane (August, 1899) compelled many of the 
people to depend on the bounty of the United States, which in a few months dis- 
tributed to them over 30,000,000 pounds of food. The destruction of tlieir crops only 
increased the impatience with which the Porto Ricans waited for Congress to settle 
their new relations and restore their industrit>s. Their separation from Spain had cut 
off a free market for their main products, which now entered our country under tariff 
rules. As a measure of temporary relief, a bill was passed (March, 19(K)) appropriating 
the duties collected hitherto on Porto Rican imports, amounting to upward of 
12,000,000, for the benefit of the island. 




349 



350 



McKINLEyS ADMINISTRATION 



[190J 



provision, implying that Porto Rico is not part of the 
United States, was declared constitutional by the Supreme 
Court.' This tariff, however, came to an end in July. 




COFI-EK IM.ANTATION, I'OItTO UlCO. 

1901, when the local taxation of Porto Rico was found to 
be sufficient for its expenses. 

The PJiilippines. — Unlike Porto Rico and Guam, which 
welcomed American authority, some of the Philippines 
objected to any sovereignty foreign to themselves. Many 
of the Filipinos had fought bravely against the tyranny 
of Spain, and now, under the lead of Aguinaldo (ag e- 

' It ■was decided that the general laws of the United States, and some i>f the pro- 
visions of the Constitution, do not apply to new territory until Coufrress extends 
them over it. Porto Rico, the Philipi)ines, Guam, and Twtuila are not i)art8 of the 
United BtJitea, and tlieir citizens are not citizens oi the United States. But they are 
possessions of our country, under the control of Consi-ess, and hence rre not foreign. 
They arc practically colonies. 



1899] 



INSULAR AFFAIRS 



351 



nahl'do), they looked for absolute independence for them- 
selves and their neighbors. 

The war in the Philippines arose when there was no 
active sovereignty over the islands, during the long in- 
terval between the signing and 
the confirmation of the Paris 
treaty. General Merritt was suc- 
ceeded by General Elwell S. Otis, 
who occupied Manila, while the 
insurgent Filipinos controlled 
most of the remainder of Luzon. 
On February 4, 1899, the Fili- 
pinos began the war by attack- 
ing the defenses of Manila ; they 
were repulsed, with a loss of 
2000 men, and General Otis then 
directed an aggressive cam- 
paign. Malo'los, the Filipino 
capital, was captured (March 
31) ; the army of the Filipinos 

was broken up ; and within two years most of the insur- 
gents surrendered. 

In 1899 a commission appointed by the President 
visited the Philippines and reported upon their condition. 
Early in 1900 the President appointed a new commission 
of five members to control and take charge of all matters 
connected with the construction of a government, and to 
appoint all necessary civil officers. This commission, of 
which Judge William H. Taft of Cincinnati was made 
president, entered upon its duties in the Philippines in 
June. Schools were encouraged, local governments were 
established, and the Filipinos were given a large share of 
self-government. 

B.HI8T. U. 8.— 21 




THE PHILIPPINES. 



352 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1900 

The Philippine Commission, enlarged by the addition 
of three Filipino commissioners, continued for several 
years to exercise supreme authority in the islands. Its 
work was ratified by act of Congress (July 1, 1902), which 
also contained guarantees of liberty to the Filipinos and 
provided for a census of the islands and for a new plan of 
government to be put into effect by the Commission. The 
new plan includes a legislature of two houses: one con- 
sisting of the Philippine Commission, and the other of a 
Phihppine Assembly elected by the Filipinos. The gov- 
ernor, heads of the Philij)pine executive departments, 
other members of the Commission, and judges of the 
Philippine supreme court are appointed by the President 
with the consent of the Senate. 

Cuba. — On the evacuation of Cuba by Spain, the 
United States assumed control temporarily. Such thor- 
ough sanitary reforms were brought about that the island 
was almost entirely freed from yellow fever. The city 
governments were soon turned over to the Cubans ; and 
delegates were elected to a convention which adopted a 
constitution for the government of Cuba as an independ- 
ent nation under the protection of the United States. 

When elections had been held under this constitution, 
the United States troops were withdrawn and the control 
of the island was turned over to its own government, 
May 20, 1902. 

Foreign Affairs. — Chinese Disorders. — In the summer 
of 1900 there was in China a native uprising against for- 
eigners. The Chinese government secretly encouraged 
the movement. Finally the European powers, Japan, 
and the United States, all sent troops to Peking to rescue 
the ambassadors and other foreigners there and to restore 
order. 



1900] POLITICAL PARTIES 353 

Political Parties. — The leading candidates for President 
and Vice President in 1900 were: Republican, William 
McKinley (renominated), and Theodore Eoosevelt of New 
York; Democratic and People's party, William Jennings 
Bryan of Nebraska, and Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois. 
Nominations were also made by the Prohibition party, the 
independent (anti-fusion) branch of the People's party, 
and other parties. The Republican candidates were 
elected. 

Assassination of McKinley. — At the Pan-American 
Exposition in Buffalo, President McKinley held a public 
reception, and shook hands with the people as they passed 
him in line. An anarchist, cunningly hiding a revolver 
in what seemed to be a bandaged hand, advanced in his 
turn, and at the President's greeting shot him twice 
(September 6, 1901). McKinley died of his wounds (Sep- 
tember 14), and on that day Vice-President Roosevelt 
took the oath of office as President (p. 369). 

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 

During the Civil War, as we have seen, a vast amount 
of property was destroyed, — millions and millions of dol- 
lars' worth, — and the supreme energies of the nation were 
for four years directed in military channels. Hence there 
was a great disturbance, a great check in many kinds of 
industry. But within a short time after the war the 
country regained its former prosperity, and it then con- 
tinued to progress so rapidly that by the end of the 
century it stood first among the countries of the earth 
in wealth and in the amount and value of its industrial 
products. 

Between 1860 and 1900 the population of the country 



354 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



more than doubled. The number of immigrants who 
came each year varied from less than 100,000 to nearly 
800,000. Cities grew in population much more rapidly 
than country districts; in 1900 a third of all the people 
lived in cities or large towns. Also, the productive ca- 
pacity of nearly every workiugman was increased by 
many inventions of labor-saving machines and new, eco- 
nomical methods of work. 

The patents issued by the United States between 1860 
and 1900 numbered over 600,000. They include improve- 
ments on almost every implement of peace or war, from 
the cannon to the telescope.^ Among the notable Ameri- 
can inventions made or perfected since 1860 are vestibule 
and sleeping cars, automatic car couplers, the typewriter, 
typesetting machines, the telephone, and electi-ic lights.^ 
Near the end of the century, machines were introduced 
even for recording votes in elections — a method that is 
quicker and more accurate than voting by ballot. 

> The printing press of 
a century ago -would, at a 
great expense of labor, 
print, on one side, abont 
250 slieets an hour. A new 
steam " perfecting press " 
will in the same time turn 
out 96,000 four-page news- 
papers folded, pasted, and 
printed on both sides of 
each page. 

2Just as the steam engine 
brought about the most not- 
able changes in industrial methods before the Civil War, so new uses of electricity are 
the most striking features of mechanical development in the later period. Besides 
the telephone and electricj lights there were now introduced tlie dynamo and the 
electric motor — a means by which water power or steam power is transformed into 
electricity and then, after being carried to a distance by wire or stored up in storage 
batteries, is changed back into motive power witli very little loss. In this way, for 
instance, port of the vast power of Niagara Falls is used in Buflfalo and other cities. 
Not only are trolley cars, automobiles, etc., driven by electric power, hut also ma<:hlnea 
used in hundreds of kinds of work, from running elevators to dressing meat. 




- '-\ 



HODGRN PRINTING PRESS. 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 355 

This period of our industrial history is characterized by 
the multiplication and growth of large corporations. In 
many cases the property or the stock of competing cor- 
porations has been bought by a single corporation, which 
thus seeks to gain a monopoly of the business, and is 
commonly called a " trust." Many kinds of manufacture 
have come under the control of trusts, each with a capital 
stock of millions of dollars. On the other hand, trades 
unions have grown and developed until they include a 
controlling proportion of the skilled workingmen of the 
country. Disagreements between employers and trades 
unions have led to many thousands of strikes, fewer" suc- 
cessful than unsuccessful; but on the whole wages have 
gradually become higher and hours of labor fewer. 

Agriculture. — Since 1860 many new agricultural imple- 
ments and machines have been invented ; the rotation of 
crops and the use of fertilizers have been reduced to an 
exact science; and the cultivated area has been more 
than doubled. The cotton crop has increased to move 
than 10,000,000 bales a year, and the corn, wheat, tobacco, 
and other crops are far larger than before. This period is 
also marked by the great development of truck farming 
(the raising of fruits and vegetables for the supply of city 
markets) ; by the production of great quantities of vege- 
tables and fruits preserved in canning factories (an indus- 
try introduced during this period) ; and by the beginnings 
of beet cultivation on a large scale for the supply of sugar 
factories (since about 1890). The new Northwest has 
become important in agriculture, and in many of the 
Western States vast areas formerly arid have been made 
highly productive by irrigation. 

Herding.— The drier parts of the country near the Rocky 
Mountains have become a great pasture for millions of 



356 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 

cattle and sheep. The cattle, sheep, swine, and other 
domestic animals kept in all parts of the country are 
greater in value than those of any other nation. 

During this period the making of cheese, and later of 
butter, which was for a long time solely a household 
manufacture, has in large part become the work of facto- 
ries; the "condensing" of milk has l)ecome an important 
industry ; and there has been developed an elaborate sys- 
tem for carrying fresh milk into large cities every day by 
railroads — in some cases over a hundred miles. 

The work of slaughtering animals and preserving and 
distributing meats has been gathered largely into the 
hands of a few great corporations. Such improvements 
have been made in this industry — especially in the man- 
ner of keeping meat fresh by refrigeration — that we export 
vast quantities of fresh meats as well as of live cattle. 

Lumbering. — To supply the greatly increased needs of 
our rapidly growing manufactures, lumbering has been 
carried on so extensively as to threaten the destruction of 
our remaining forests. Among the new demands made 
upon them, is that for vast quantities of wood pulp from 
which the cheaper grades of paper are now made. On 
the other hand, wood now supplies a much smaller share 
of the fuel burned in onr country than in former periods. 

Mining. — In this period the main regions of iron mining 
came to be the southern and western shores of Lake 
Superior (about 1880) and the southern Appalachian 
Mountains. Rich copper mines were opened in Montana 
and Arizona, coal mines in many States, new gold mines 
in Colorado, Alaska, and elsewhere, and rich silver mines 
in the Rocky Mountain region. 

The sinking of wells for petroleum, begun just before 
the Civil War, grew rapidly to a vast industry in western 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 357 

Pennsylvania and the neighboring States, and about the 
end of the century in California and Texas also. The 
refining of petroleum (producing gasoline, kerosene, vase- 
line, and many other things) took rank among our most 
important manufactures, meeting the home demand and 
furnishing large quantities for export. Natural gas, 
obtained, like petroleum, from wells drilled deep into the 
earth, supplied light and fuel for many towns and cities. 

Manufactures. — Our manufactures steadily increased, 
so that in 1900 they amounted to $13,000,000,000, about 
seven times the output of 1860. Not only did they meet 
a larger and larger share of the^ increasing home demand, 
but the amount of manufactures exported grew year by 
year until it formed nearly a third of the total exports. 

About a generation after the Civil War, many cotton 
mills, tobacco factories, and other manufactories were 
established in the South, which had theretofore been 
almost wholly an agricultural section. 

Many new articles were manufactured, and great im- 
provements in methods and processes were made in every 
branch of manufacture — improvements which in many 
cases lowered the price to the consumer besides increasing 
the manufacturer's profits and the laborers' wages. These 
are typical of many : From cotton seed, long considered 
almost worthless, was made an oil someijiing like lin- 
seed oil and olive oil. Soon after the invention of bicy- 
cles more of them were manufactured in this country 
than in any other, as is the case also with many other 
machines. Ten thousand inventions were patented in 
the details of making boots and shoes, and so many diffcu'- 
cnt machines are actually used that a single pair of shoes 
may be the work of twenty men, each doing a small part. 
In flour mills, rollers took the place of the older mill- 



358 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



stones. Steel was made largely from pig iron and be- 
came cheaper than the wrought iron from which it was 
formerly made ; and it came to be used as the chief ma- 
terial of thousands of things, from nails and tin cans to 
ships and the framework of thirty-story buildings. The 
production of cotton and woolen goods grew steadily in 
importance. The manufacture of silk grew to such pro- 
portions as to supply most of the home demand, though 
the United States consumes more silk goods than any 
other country. 

Transportation. — By the year 1900 the number of miles of 
railroad in the United States was increased to more than 

190,000 — more than in 
all other countries com- 
bined. Transportation 
by canal became of 
comparatively little im- 
portance, but that by 
large ships on the 
oceans and the Great 
Lakes increased vastly 
in amount. So much 
iron ore and grain were shipped down the Great Lakes 
from points on Lake Superior that more freight passed 
through the Soo Canal (on St. Marys River) than through 
the Suez Canal. 

The telegi'aph wires in the country increased to more 
than a million miles, and the telephone wires to a much 
greater length. 

Commerce. — What has just been said of transportation 
is enough to indicate the vast amount of our domestic 
commerce — which is far greater than our foreign com- 
merce. Yet the foreign trade of the United States 






MODERN LOCOMOTIVE. 



1867] 



NEW STATES 



359 



^^■^^^^B^'~"'''''"'"'miiyiiiiii iiinMiiTmi. 




H^i^-fr-.^. 



has grown to be over $2,000,000,000 a year. The chief 
exports are cotton, iron and steel, pork and beef, wheat 
and flour, corn, petro- 
leum products, copper 
manufactures, lumber 
and articles of wood ; 
our chief imports, 
sugar, hides, chemi- 
cals, coffee, raw silk 
and silk goods, cotton 
goods, aud rubber. 

Nearly all the Amer- 
ican shipping engaged the new york, a modern steamship. 

in the foreign trade at 

the time of the Civil War was either destroyed by Con- 
federate cruisers or sold to foreigners to avoid destruc- 
tion. Since then it has been only in part replaced by 
modern ships, though their number is increasing; and 
most of our imports and exports are carried in foreign 
vessels. 



NEW STATES (1865-1896) 



Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, -was admitted to the Union March 1, 1867. The 
Territory of Nebraska was organized in 1854 (p. 225). At first it included all of the 
Louisiana purchase north of Kansas and west of the Missouri aud White Earth rivers ; 
the present north limit was fixed in 1861 and the west limit in 1863. 

Colorado was admitted as a State August 1, 1876. Congi-ess decided to admit it March 
3, 1875, and its constitution was ratified hy its people July 1, 1876. Its territory came 
partly from the Louisiana purchase and partly from Mexico. It was organized as a 
Territory in 1861, with its present boundaries. The first settlement was Denver. 

North Dakota and South Dakota were admitted November 2, 1889. They had pre- 
viously formed the Territory of Dakota, which was organized in 1861. Montana entered 
the Union November 8, 1889, and "Washington November 11 of the same year. In 1890 
Idaho (July 3) and Wyoming (July 10) M'ere admitted. This group of six States was 
traversed by the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804-06 (p. 178), but their rapid settle- 
ment did not take place till after the Civil War. Since the building of the great trans- 
continental railroads their growth has been remarkable. The Dakotas and most of 
Montana and Wyoming are from the Louisiana purchase ; Washington, Idaho, and 



360 PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 

parte of Montana and Wyoming are froin the Oregon country, and part of Wyoming 
is from Mexico. Washington Territory, organized in 1853, had the limits shown on 
page 252 from 1859 till the formation of Idaho Territory in 18C3. The Territory of Idaho 
at first included also Montana and nearly all of Wyoming; but in 1864 Montana woa 
made a separate Territory and most of Wyoming was added temporarily to DaJkota. 
The Territory of Wyoming was organize<l in 1868. 

Utah, the fortj'-lifth State, was admitted to the Union January 4, I89fi. The Mormons 
made their first settlement there (p. 213) when Utah was part of Mexico, They 
rapidly increased iu numbers, and for a time were inclined to oppose the federal au- 
thority. Congress organized the Territory of Utah in 1850 (pp. 226, 252), and later 
made laws designed to break up the practice of polytramy there. Utah asked ad- 
mission to the Union, but this was denied until after the Mormon Church had given 
up polygamy and the people of Utah had adopted a constitution forever prohibiting it. 



PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 

Having traced the history of our country down to the 
end of the nineteenth century, let us glance back and note 
the successive steps in its growth. 

Territorial Development (pp. 361, 349).— The treaty with 
Q-reat Britain (September 3, 1783) fixed the boundaries of 
the United States as the Atlantic Ocean, the Great Lakes, 
the Mississippi River, and the north line of Florida. 

Louisiana was purchased of France in 1803 (pp. 176, 178). 
Florida was purchased of Spain (p. 200) l)y the treaty of 
1819.' This treaty also ended a dispute over a strip of 
coast about fifty miles wide, lying between Florida and 
the Mississippi River, which was considered by Spain as a 
part of Florida, but had been seized by the United States 
(1812, 1813) as part of tlie Louisiana purchase." Texas 
was annexed in 1845 (pp. 214, 246). The cession of 1848 

• The date usually given to a treaty Is the date of the instrument itself — the date 
when It Is first signed by the agents of the two nations. But the treaty is not J)inrting 
till it is ratified by the proper home authority in each government. This treaty with 
Spain, for Instance, was signed February 22,1819, was ratified by the king of Spain 
October 24, 1820, and by the United ."States Senate February 19, 1821. 

2 Part of this strip was added to the State of Louisiana in 1812, a few days after the 
admission of that State ; the rest forms parte of Mississippi and Alabama. 



362 



PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 



(p. 220), giving the United States an immense territory, was 
a forced pm-chase, resulting from our successful war with 
Mexico. The cession of 1853 was secured by peaceful 
means (p. 228). Alaska was purchased in 1867. In 1898- 
1900 we acquired several island possessions, some peace- 
ably and some through the war with Spain (pp. 346-348). 

In 1790 the area of the republic; was about 800,000 
square miles.* It is now nearly 4,000,000 square miles. 

The Population.— In 1800, Portland, Me., Providence, 
R. I., and Richmond, Va., were only small towns. Lan- 
caster, Pa., was the largest inland place. St. Louis, New 
Orleans, and Mobile were then in foreign territory. 
Chicago was for years a mere trading station, surrounded 
by the wigwams of savages. 

The population of the entire United States at the time 
of the first census was less than 4,000,000. The census of 




MOVEMENT OF THE CENTEK OF POPULATION. 

1900 showed over 75,000,000. The center of population 
in 1790 was 23 miles east of Baltimore; in 1900 it had 
moved westward to a point near Columbus, in southeastern 
Indiana. In 1790 there were only 6 cities having a pop- 



'IjeflSthan hiilf of tliJ8 aroawiiB then occiipiiMl. ISIost of our line farms, and tho 
sites of many lar^i! cities, were then " wild lands." The small value placed upon ilieni 
may be seen from the fact that m 17'.)1 the State of New York sold 5,500,()00 acres at au 
average price of eighteeu cente an acre. 



THE POST OFFICES S63 

ulation of over 8000; in 1900 there were 545. The largest 
city in 1790 was New York, with 33,000 inhabitants; in 
1900 New York had over 3,300,000. 

The Post Offices in 1790 numbered 75. Between New 
York and Philadelphia there were only five mails a week, 
and it required two days for a letter to go this short dis- 
tance.' They were generally carried throughout the 
country by men on horseback, the saddle-bags easily 
holding the scanty number of letters and papers then 
sent. Mails were forwarded between New York and 
Boston three times a week in summer, and twice in 
winter. In remote places the mail was allowed to 
accumulate until enough was secured to pay the cost 
of transmission. It was a favored rural village that 
had a weekly mail. The time of its arrival was locally 
known as the "post day," and when the postman came 
he found a crowd assembled to receive the few letters 
he brought, and to hear the newspaper read by the 
minister or landlord. 

In 1900 we had over 75,000 post offices. Not only were 
the mails frequent between post offices, but mail matter 
was carried to people's homes and offices in all large 
cities. In some country districts, also, a beginning was 
being made in the great rural free delivery system. 

Education. — The idea of popular education was brought 
to the New World by our forefathers. Even in the wil- 
derness, while the wolf prowled about the log house, and 

iThe tedious mode of travel in the early days is well Illustrated in the following 
incident : In 1824-25 an effort was made in Congress to admit Oregon. Mr. Dickinson 
of New Jersey declared that "the project of a State upon the Pacific was an absurdity. 
The distance that a member of Congress from Oregon would be obliged to travel in 
coming to the seat of government and returning home would bo 9200 miles. If he 
should travel thirty miles per day, it would require 30G days ; allowing for Sundays, 
forty-four, it would amount to 350 days. This would leave the member a fortnight to 
rest at Washington before he commenced his journey home." 



364 PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 

the cry of the wild cat was still heard, the school and 
even the college were established.' 

A part of the public lauds of the United States has, 
from the beginning, been set aside for purposes of educa- 
tion. The ordinance of 1787 for the government of the 
Northwest Territory (p. 163) devoted " section sixteen of 
every township " for maintaining public schools, and, in 
making this generous provision, stipulated that " religion, 
morality, and knowledge being necessary to good govern- 
ment and the happiness of mankind, schools and the 
means of education shall be forever encouraged." In 
1848, when Oregon was organized as a Territory (p. 247), 
the " thirty -sixth section " was also set apart for schools ; 
and since then each new State has received both sections 
for educational purposes. " At various times, also, other 
lands have been given, so that in all about 140,000,000 
acres have been devoted to the States for the support of 
common schools." So important has been this subject in 
the minds of our legislators that, in the midst of the Civil 
War, when the national government was straining every 
nerve to raise and equip armies to preserve its very exist- 
ence, Congress took time to consider and pass a bill (1862) 
gi'anting 30,000 acres of public lands for every senator 
and representative in Congress, in order to maintain, in 

' The Revolution left all the institutions of learning paralyzed. But in less than a 
month after Wasliingtoii resigned hiscoumiissiou. Governor fieorge Clinton's xnessage 
to tlie legislature of New Yorli contained these memorable words : *' Perhaps there is 
scarce any thing more worthy your attention than the revival and encouragement of 
seminaries of learning, and uotliiug by which we can more satisfactorily express our 
gratitude to the Supreme Being for His past favors, since purity and virtue are gener- 
ally the offspring of an enlightened understanding." Tlie State was poor, and savages 
occupied a large part of the region w( st of Albany; yet the legislature rose to thc^ 
grandeur of tlie conception, and at once established a Board of Regents to superintend 
the interests of higher education. Within a month after its organization, this board 
authorized the "purcliase of such a philosopliical apparatus for Columbia College as 
Dr. Franklin, Mr. Adams, and Mr. Jeiterson [then representatives at the French court) 
should advise." 



EDUCATION 365 

each state, what has since been known as an Agricul- 
tural College. 

In consequence of these and equally liberal provisions 
on the part of State governments, aided by the munificent 
gifts of many persons in private life, the progress of edu- 
cation in the United States has been marvelous. Instead 
of nine colleges, as in pre-Revolutionary times, we have 
five hundred, several of which are worth over $10,000,000, 
and many over $1,000,000. The common school is fos- 
tered in every part of the country. The daily free-school 
bell now calls together, in the States and Territories of 
the Union, over 15,000,000 children, who are being edu- 
cated at an annual expense of over $200,000,000. 

Literature. — In colonial times there were few American 
books, and those chiefly upon theology. The earliest 
theological writer was Cotton Mather; and the greatest 
was Jonathan Edwards, one of the ablest theologians of 
all time. Benjamin Franklin, however, by his sensible 
writings on many subjects, stands forth as one of the 
leading colonial authors. 

During the agitation that finally ended in the separa- 
tion from the mother country, politics became the univer- 
sal theme of discussion. The contest was decided by the 
pen quite as certainly as by the sword. Patrick Henry, 
Otis, the elder Adams, Franklin, Dickinson, Freneau, 
Trumbull,^ and Hopkinson aroused their countrymen, first 
to attempt, and then to endure, while, at the same time, 
they sought to enlist in their cause the sympathies of 
mankind. 

After the war had decided the issue, and it came to 
building up a united nation out of a loose confederation of 

1 WMpple says, " Trnmbuirs McFingal sent the rustic volunteers laughing into the 
ranks of Washington and Greene." < 



366 PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 

States, Jay, Hamilton, Madison,' Jefferson, John Adams, 
Washington, Fisher Ames, and others were most efficient 
in organizing and shaping the policy of the new govern- 
ment. As the Declaration of Independence was chiefly the 
work of Jefferson, so the Constitution of the United States 
was that of Hamilton and Madison. 

In all history an era of strife has been followed by one 
of marked mental vigor. Thus, as one would expect, the 
generation that directly followed the adoption of the Con- 
stitution gave us the classics of American literature. 

Irving was the first American author to secure general 
recognition at home and abroad. In 1809 appeared his 
inimitable Diedrich Knickerbocker's History of Neiv York, 
and, about ten years later, his Sketch Book. The creatures 
of his fancy quickly passed into the life of the people. 
Even now, Ichabod Crane and Rip Van Winkle are as 
familiar to us as if we had lived in Sleepy Hollow and 
known them all our days. Bryant wrote his Thanatopsis 
in 1812, when he was only eighteen years old. Cooper 
laid the foundation of American romance. His descriptions 
of American scenery, the Indian, and life at sea, were 
eagerly read on both sides of the Atlantic. Simms wrote 
of Southern scenes and characters. Poe, the most imagin- 
ative of our poets, made himself famous by TJie Bells and 
The Raven. Emerson's essays, by their original thought 
and brilliant style, caused at once a profound impression. 
Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, House of the Seven Gables, and 
Marble Faun ranked him with the great novelists of all 
time. Longfellow's poems touched the heart of the peo- 
ple, and quickly found their way into the reading books 

' Hamilton, Jay, and Madison wrote a series of powerful and convincing essays 
favoring the adoption of tlie Constitution. These were at first publislied as news- 
paper articles, but were afterwards collected in a volume known aa the Federalist— the 
" political classic of the United States." 



LITERATURE 367 

of the schools; and the verses of Whittier, the Quaker 
poet and abolitionist, have been repeated on almost every 
high-school stage in the land. Lowell, a brilliant essayist 
and poet, wrote much to stir the North in opposition to 
slavery. Dr. Holmes wrote many essays, novels, and 
poems. 

In no branch of literature have American authors 
achieved greater success than in history. Prescott wrote 
of Spain and Spanish America ; Motley, of the Nether- 
lands; Bancroft, of the United States. Parkman is the 
author of a series of charming and valuable books cover- 
ing the history of the French in America. Fiske's works 
also make entertaining many chapters of our own history. 

To chronicle the constantly increasing list of our authors 
and their works would require a volume of itself. Ameri- 
can authors are known and their writings read in all 
parts of the civilized world. 

In journalism our progress has been especially marked. 
At the opening of the Eevolution, only 37 papers circu- 
lated in the colonies. There are now issued in the United 
States over 20,000 newspapers and periodicals. Popular 
education has made us a peculiarly enlightened nation, and 
statistics prove that " our people read as much as all the 
rest of the world who read at all." 

Philanthropic and Religious Institutions. — In nothing 
do we see the ameliorating and elevating influences of 
our time more than in the generosity with which chari- 
table institutions and philanthropic associations have, of 
late years, been founded and supported. As the country 
has grown in size, population, and wealth, relief has been 
more widely extended to human suffering, and efforts 
have been more urgently made to elevate the moral and 
religious condition of our race the world over. 



368 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Progress and Problems of this Epoch. 



Johnson's 
Administi'ation. 
(ib65-t;'j.) 



3. Grant's 

Administratis 
(1869-77.) 



4. Hayes's 

Administration. 
(1877-81.) 



Garfleld and 

Arthur's 
Administration. 

(1881-85.) 



0. Cleveland's 
First 
Administration. 
(188.5-89.) 



Harrison's 
Administration. 
(1889-9:5.) 



8. Cleveland's 
Second 
Administration. 
(1893-97.) 



McKinley's 
Administration. 
(1897-1901.) 



1. Disbanding of the Union Amiy. 



2. Doiucstic Affairs. 

3. Foreign Affairs. 

4. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Aff.iirs. 

2. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Political Parties. 

■ 1. Domestic Affairs. 



2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 



1. Domestic Affairs. 



2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 



War with Sjtain. 
(1898.) 



3. Insular Affairs. 



a. Kecoustnirtioii Policy of the President. 

h. Ibt Tliirtefiitli Amendment 

c. Ui<oii6trurtii)n I'oliry of CungrcHe. 

(/. Sect<tid Myites .Adniitted. 

e. IiiiiMutliinent ot the President 

/. Tlie Fourteenth Amendnieut. 



f a. French lii Mexico. 



J b. Lnyiiii; of tlie Atiaii 
I c. Purcliaae uf Alaslca. 
L d. Treaty with China. 



iantic Cable. 



Treaty 

a. Pacific Kailroads. 

b. Tlie Fifteenth Amendment. 

c. Fires. 

d. Kailroail Panic. 
e Indian WnrR. 

/. Centennial Fjxhibition. 
Treaty of Washington. 



\l 



V. S. Troops in the South Withdrawr.. 
Kailroad Strilie. 
Changes in Currency. 

a. Asiiassination of I'resident Uarfield. 

4. AcctbBion of Arthur. 

c. Chinese E.xcltisiou. 

d. Civil Service Bill, 
c. Letter I'ostage. 

/. New Navy Begun. 

a. Presidential Succession Law. 
6 Electoral Count Act. 

c. Striiies and Labor Disturbancea 

d. Kurtlii|ual(e.». 

e. Statiif of Liberty. 

/. Interslate Commerce Act. 



a. The Johnstown Hood. 

b. The Tarirt. 

c. Pensions. 

d. Ballot Keforni. 
e OklnhoMia. 

/. Indian Troubles. 
g Labor Troubles. 
I>. Chinese Exclusion. 



International Copyright. 



o. World's Columbian Exposition. 

5. Repeal of Silver Purchase Law. 
c The Tiiritr. 

d. Kepial of the Force Bill. 

e. Great Itailruad Strike. 
a. Hawaii. 

6. The Venezuelan Boundary. 



{.' 



The Tariff. 

Gold Standard Act. 

Galveston Disaster. 

a. Causes. 

b. Fighting in Philippines. 

c. Fighting in West Indies. 

d. Peace. 

e. Cost of the War. 

a. nawaii. 

b. Tutuila. 

c. Wake. 

d. Porto Kico. 
«. Philippines. 
/ Cuba. 

a. Chinese Disorders. 

b. Alaska Boundary. 



4. Foreitrn Affairs. 

5. Political Parties. 

6. Assassination of McKinley. 

10. Roosevelt's Administration, etc. (to be added by the pupil). 

11. Industrial History. 

12. New States. 

13. Progress in Civilization. 



RECENT EVENTS 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1901-1909)1 

Isthmian Canal — The project of constructing a ship 
canal across the Isthmus of Panama, or near it, occupied 
public attention for many 
years. A French company 
spent millions in an at- 
tempt to build a canal 
across the isthmus, but 
failed through poor man- 
agement before the work 
was half done. Our gov- 
ernment had a thorough 
survey made of this route, 
and also of the Nicaragua 
route across the southern 
part of Central America. 
The owners of the French 
canal having offered to sell 
their rights and property 
for $40,000,000, Congress passed a law (1902) authorizing 
the President to purchase and complete it, or to build the 

1 Theodore Roosevelt was bom in New York, 1858. In liis boyhood he was weak in 
body but strong in spirit, and in time lie overcame his infirmities and became robust. 
He took great interest in athletics. He graduated at Harvard iu 1880, and two years 
later became a member of the New York legislature, where he secured the passage of a 
civil service reform law. In 1889-95 he was a member of the national Civil Service 
Commission (p. 327). He resigned this position to become a police commissioner in 
New York city, where he was noted for his strict enforcement of the laws. Appointed 
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897), he had much to do in making our naval forces 
ready for the war with Spain ; and as lieutenant colonel and afterwards colonel of the 
" Rough Riders " he played a conspicuous part iu the Santiago campaign. In the fall 
of 1898 he waa elected governor of New York, and in 1900 Vice President. 

369 




Copi,rujht, 1898, by Rmlcwnod, N. t. 

THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 



370 ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 

Nicaragua canal in case satisfactory title and control of 
the Panama route could not be obtained. 

The next year, accordingly, a treaty was negotiated 
with Colombia, by the terms of which the United States 
was to have control of a strip of land across the Isthmus 
of Panama on the payment of $10,000,000 and an annual 
rental of $250,000. But the Colombian Congress rejected 
this treaty, whereupon the Colombian province of Panama 
seceded (November 3, 1903), and was promptly recognized 
as an independent republic l)y the United States and 
other countries. A new treat v was then negotiated with 
Panama, similar to the rejected Colombian treaty. 

Chinese Exclusion (1902). — The exclusion of Chinese 
laborers (pp. 327, 333) was continued. The law was also 
applied to the islands belonging to the United States. 
Chinese laborers are not allowed to enter any of our in- 
sular possessions, and those already living there — many 
thousand in number — can not move from one island 
group to another or to the mainland part of our country 

Anthracite Coal Strike (1902). — Through the organiza- 
tion of labor and of capital in our country, it had come 
about that the wages of workers in most of the bitumi- 
nous coal mines were fixed each year by agreement between 
representatives of the miners and of the mine owners. 
The miners' union proposed a similar arrangement for 
the anthracite mines, but the mine owners declined. In 
May, 1902, the anthracite miners struck for higher pay 
and shorter hours. They were aided by contributions 
from the bituminous workers and others. The strike 
lasted so long that the resulting shortage of coal became 
a serious menace to the public health in some cities and 
to the many industries dependent on hard coal for fuel. 
President Roosevelt finally proposed that the questions 



ALASKA BOUNDAEY 



371 



at issue be submitted to the arbitration of a commission 
selected by him. Both sides having approved of the com- 
missioners appointed, work was resumed late in October. 

Alaska Boundary — After the discovery of rich gold 
deposits in the Klondike region in northwestern Canada 
(1896), many miners 
crossed the southern 
part of Alaska on 
their way thither, 
and many supplies 
were sent by the 
same route. This 
gave importance to 
a dispute over the 
Alaska boundary, 
and by a treaty with 
Great Britain in 
1903 the question 
was left to the de- 
cision of an arbitra- 
tion tribunal of six 
members, three being appointed by each country. Our 
claim placed the boundary thirty-five miles from the coast 
of the mainland; the Canadian claim placed it so as to 
give several seaports to Canada. The matter depended 
on the interpretation of an old treaty between Russia and 
Great Britain. The decision of the majority of the tri- 
bunal sustained the chief contention of the United States, 
namely, that Alaska should include a continuous strip of 
the mainland coast. 

Department of Commerce and Labor (1903). — A ninth 
member was added to the President's Cabinet^ in the 

1 The eighth member is the Secretary of Agriculture, added in 1889. See also p. 329. 




ALASKA BOUNDARY. 



372 ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 

person, of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The 
work of the new executive department is to promote the 
interests of commerce, manufactures, fisheries, and labor, 
largely by collecting and publishing information on these 
subjects. One bureau in the department has power to in- 
vestigate the organization and working of any trust or 
corporation (except railroads) engaged in interstate or 
foreig;n commerce. 

Pacific Cable. — Work on the first submarine cable 
(p. 316) across the Pacific Ocean was completed July 4, 
1903. This extends from San Francisco to the Hawaiian 
Islands, Guam, and the Philippines. 

Political Parties. — The candidates of the two great par- 
ties for President and Vice President in 1904 were : Re- 
publican, Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, and Charles 
W. Fairbanks, of Indiana ; Democratic, Judge Alton B. 
Parker, of New York, and Henry G. Davis, of West Vir- 
ginia. The Socialist, Prohibition, and People's parties 
also made nominations. The RejDublican candidates were 
elected by a very large majority. 

Earthquake and Fire at San Francisco. — Just before sun- 
rise on April 18, 1906, part of California was shaken by 
an earthquake. Many buildings in many places were dam- 
aged and some were wrecked, causing the death of many 
hundreds of people. In San Francisco fire broke out in 
the ruins and raged for several days, until nearly all the 
business part of the city and over half the residences 
were in ashes. A vast multitude of people, driven from 
their homes, sought shelter in tents. Martial law was 
declared, thieves were shot without ceremony, passers-by 
were compelled at pistol's point to help clear streets and 
bury the dead. Famine threatened the stricken city but 
was averted by the prompt aid afforded by Federal and 



INTERSTATE COMMERCE 373 

State governments and by hundreds of individuals all over 
the country. The people of San Francisco, undaunted 
by their double disaster, began at once to rebuild the city. 

Interstate Commerce — In spite of the act of 1887 (p. 330) 
and some later laws, favored shippers were still given 
various unfair advantages in the service and charges of 
railroads. In 1906 Congress greatly enlarged the power 
of the Interstate Commerce Commission to supervise rail- 
roads, express companies, and other common carriers' 
operating in more than one state, and even authorized it 
to fix new freight and passenger rates in place of any it 
deemed to be unjust or unreasonable. 

Besides this law to regulate interstate transportation. 
Congress passed several acts to regulate the quality of 
goods entering into interstate commerce. Efficient in- 
spection of meat packing establishments was provided, at 
a cost of $3,000,000 a year. Adulteration or misbranding 
of any foods, drugs, medicines, or liquors manufactured 
anywhere for sale in another state, was forbidden under 
heavy penalties. 

New State. — An act was passed (1906) providing for the 
admission of Oklahoma (p. 332), including the Indian Ter- 
ritory, as one State.^ Under this act the new State was 
admitted November 16, 1907. 



1 Pipe lines for transporting petroleum were included in the provisions of this act. 
Another law affecting the petroleum industry was an act removing the internal 
revenue tax from alcohol to be used in the arts, or for fuel, light, or power. The tax on 
alcohol had previously been so high as to prevent its extensive use in competition with 
kerosene, gasoline, or other petroleum products. Following the example of some 
other countries, the United States now removed the tax, on condition that the alcohol 
be mixed with certain other substances that spoil it for use in any medicine or drink. 

■^ The same act provided also for the admission of a new State of Arizona, to con- 
sist of the two Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, on condition that each Terri- 
tory, voting separately, should favor uniting. But in the election Arizona voted 
against the union, so both Territories remained Territories. 



374 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMIN ISTRATION 



Insular Affairs. — The insurrection in the Philippines 
having been entirely suppressed, the first Philippine Assem- 
bly was elected (p. 352) and began its sessions in October, 
1907. After the second presidential election in Cuba, the 
defeated party began a revolt, which gained such headway 
that the United States government was asked to intervene 

and restore order. For two 
years, therefore, the island 
was again under the con- 
trol of a governor appointed 
by our President, and 
backed by United States 
troops. But in January, 
1 909, our forces were again 
withdrawn, and for the 
second time Cuba was 
turned over to a govern- 
ment of its own choosing. 

Political Parties. — In 
1908 both of the great 
parties declared in favor 
of many reforms. Their 
candidates for President 
and Vice President were: Republican, William H. Taft,' of 
Ohio, and James S. Sherman, of New York; Democratic, 
William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and John W. Kern, of In- 
diana. Nominations were made also by the Socialist, 




Copyright, I'.KW, l,y I'a'h Br 



WILLIAM 11. TAFT. 



' William Howard Taft was born in Cincinnati in 1857. He was graduated at 
Yale in 1878 and at the Cincinnati College Law Scliool in 1880. After several years' 
experience as assistant prosecuting attorney and lawyer he was chosen judge of the 
superior court of Cincinnati. In 1890 he became solicitor-general of the United 
States; in 1892 United States circuit judge ; in 1900 president of the Philippine 
Commission; and in 1901 governor of the Philippines. I'rom 1904 to 1908 he was 
Secretary of War, and one of the most trusted advisors of President Roosevelt. 



■ TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 375 

Prohibition, and other parties. The Republican candidates 
were elected. President Taft was inaugurated March 4, 
1909. 

TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION (1909-1913) 

Tariff of 1909. — President Taft promptly called a special 
session of Congress, which after much deliberation passed 
a new tariff law. By this act some duties were lowered, 
and some were increased. A tax of one per cent was also 
laid on the net earnings of corporations in excess of $5000 
a year. By joint resolution, there was proposed an amend- 
ment to the Constitution giving Congress full power to 
levy a tax on incomes.^ This amendment was declared 
adopted in 1913. 

New States. — In 1910 Congress provided for the later 
admission of New Mexico and Arizona as States. They 
were accordingly admitted early in 1912. 

Census. — The census of 1910 showed a population of 
nearly 92,000,000 in the main body of the United States. 
New York City then had over 4,750,000 inhabitants, or 
more than there were in the whole United States when 
Washington was President. 

Government Reforms. — During Taft's administration, 
and for some years before it, the people gave much 
thought to new plans of government, both in the nation 

' The year 1909 is also noted for a sledge trip to the north pole by Robert E. 
Peary, of Maine, who had gained much skill in Arctic exploration during several 
previous expeditions in Greenland and the polar ocean. Thus it was an American 
who first reached the pole, succeeding where scores of earlier explorers had failed. 
In 1909, also, the United States War Department bought its first aeroplane, or fly- 
ing machine, from the Wright brothers, of Dayton, Ohio. These men, Orville and 
Wilbur Wright, had perfected their machine not long before, after many years of 
study and experiment. Other men had laid the foundations of the science and art 
of flying in heavier-than-air machines, but the Wright brothers were the first who 
made actual sustained flights. 



876 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 



and in the states. For example, it was often proposed 
that United States senators should be elected by vote of 
the people instead of by the state legislatures. Finally in 
1912 Congress submitted to the states a proposed amend- 
ment to the Constitution, providing for this change. Be- 
tween 1900 and 1912 many states altered their constitutions 
so as to provide for the initiative and referendum, giving 
the people power to propose laws and to adopt or to reject 
them. Some states adopted the recall, a plan by which a 
local or state officer can, by vote of the people, be deprived 
of office before his term expires. A new plan of city gov- 
ernment, called the commission plan, was adopted for 
more than 200 cities during the first twelve years of the 
century. This plan gives great power and responsil)ility 

to a few men elected by the 
voters of the whole city. 
Many states adopted direct 
primaries, b}' which the can- 
didates of political parties 
are selected by popular vote 
instead of by conventions. 
Before 1900 only four states 
liad permitted women to 
\ ote on the same terms as 
men. In 1910-1912 five 
more states granted equal 
suffrage to women, making 
nine in all. 

Political Parties. — In 
1912, primary elections were 
held in a number of states for the selection of delegates to 
the national convention of each party, and for the ex- 




Woodrow Wilson. 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 377 

pression of the voters' preference for presidential can- 
didates. In those states, a majority of the Repiibhcan 
votes were cast for Theodore Roosevelt. A majority of 
the delegates from other states, however, opposed him, and 
the Republican national convention renominated President 
Taft. Thereupon a new Progressive party was organized, 
and Roosevelt was named as its candidate. The Demo- 
cratic nominee for President was Woodrow Wilson ^ of 
New Jersey ; and for Vice President, Thomas R. Marshall 
of Indiana. The Democratic candidates were elected by a 
very large majority of the electoral vote.^ 

1 Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia, 1856 ; he was educated at Princeton 
and at the University of Virginia. He practiced law for two years in the South 
and then became a college professor. In 1902 he was made president of Princeton 
University, and in 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey. He is the author 
of several widely read books on history and government. 

2 The popular vote was about 6,300,000 Democratic, 4,100,000 Progressive, 
3,500,000 Republican, 900,000 Socialist, and 200,000 Prohibition. 



APPENDIX 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 



1493. 

1497. 

1497-98. 

1498. 

1501. 
1511. 



1519-21. 
1520-22. 



1524, 

1532-36. 

1535. 

1539-42. 

1540-42. 

1502-64. 

1565. 

1571. 

1578-80. 

1582. 

1584-87. 

1605. 



PAGE 

Columbus discovered the New World, October 12 24 

Firnt voyage of Vespuciiis (under Pinzon and Solis), to Gulf of Mexico . 26 

The C'al)ots explored tbe eastern coast of North America .... 28 

South America was discovered by Columbus, August 10 . . . . 26 

Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India ... 27 

Vespuciiis explored the eastern coast of South America .... 27 
San Juan, in Porto Eico, founded by Ponce de Leon ; oldest city in 

United States tei-ritory 30 

Ponce de Leon reached Florida, March 27 30 

Bal))oa saw the Pacific Ocean, September 25 30 

Cortes conquered 'Mexico 29 

Magellan sailed through the Strait of MageHan and the Pacific Ocean, 
and discovered the Pliilippines. One of his vessels, returning home by 

the Cape of Good Hope, made tlie first circumnavigation of the globe. 29 

Verrazano explored the coast of North America 34 

Pizarro conquered Peru 29 

Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River 34 

De Soto in the South (found the Mississippi Eiver, 1541) .... 31 

Coronado explored the Southwest 32 

Huguenots tried to plant a colony in the Southeast . . . . . 35 

St. Augustine founded; oldest town in main part o? United States . 32 

Manila founded in the Philippines 29 

Brake sailed to the Pacific coast, and circumnavigated the globe . . 41 

Espejo explored and named New Mexico 33 

Raleigh twice attempted to plant a colony in Virginia .... 43 

De Monts established a colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia ... 36 



1G07. 



1608. 
1609. 



1613. 
1614. 
1619. 

1620. 

1622. 



Jainestown founded by the "London Company; first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement in America, May 13 44, 49 

Champlain planted, at Quebec, first permanent French colony . . 36 

Virginia enlarged by its second charter 52 

Champlain discovered Lake Champlain, and fought the Iroquois . . 37 

Hudson explored the Hudson River 46 

Settlement of New Netherland (New York) by the Dutch .... 71 

Smith explored the New England coast 57 

First Colonial Assembly, in Virginia, July 30 53 

Negro slavery introduced in Virginia 55 

Pilgrims founded Plymouth ; first permanent English settlement in 

New England (first landing there occurred December 21) ... 60 

Indian massacre in Virginia, March 22 55 

i 



11 

1623. 

1624. 

1629. 

1630. 

1632. 

1633-36. 

1634. 

1635. 

1636. 

1637. 

1638. 

1641. 
1644. 



1663. 
1665. 

1660. 
1662. 
1664. 

1670. 

1673. 

1676-7 

1676. 

1677. 

1679. 

1682. 



1683. 

1684. 

1686. 

1689. 

1689-97. 

1690. 

1692. 

1702-13. 

1710. 

1729, 

1732. 

1733. 

1738. 

1744-48. 

1745. 

1749. 

1750. 

1754. 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 

New Hampshire settled at Dover and Portsmouth .... PAQtt C6 

Virginia became a royal province 66 

Charter granted to Masaachusctts Bay colony, March 4 .... 62 

First house built in Boston, under Goveruor Winthrop, July ... 62 

Maryland granted to Lord Baltimore, June 20 79 

Connecticut settled at Windsor, Ilartford, and Wethersfleld . . 67, 69 

Maryland settled at St. Marys, March 27 79 

Claybome's rebellion in Virginia and Maryland 79 

Rhode Island settled at Providence, June 63, 70 

Pequot War 68 

New Haven colony founded 69 

Delaware settled near Wilmington by the Swedes, April .... 76 

New HampaMre united to Massachusetts 67 

Charter granted to Rhode Island ; Providence and Rhode Island Plan- 
tations united, March 14 71 

Second Indian massacre in Virginia, April 18 66 

North Carolina settled, on Albemarle Sound 81 

Civil war in Maryland 80 

New Sweden conquered by the Dutch, October 72 

Navigation Act, passed in 1651. now enforced t6 

Charter granted to Connecticut, April 20 69 

New Netherland conquered by the English and called New York . . 73 

New Jersey settled at Elizal)ethtown 75 

South Carolina settled, on the Ashley River 81 

Marquette and Joliet explored the Mississippi 38 

King Philip's War 64 

Bacon's rebellion in Virginia 57 

Maiue bought by Massachusetts Bay colony 67 

Now Hampshire made a royal province 67 

La Sallo explored the Mississippi 39 

Pennsylvania settled 76 

Delaware granted to William Penn by the Duke of York, August 31 . 76 

Philadelphia founded by William Penn 77 

Massachusetts Bay colony a royal province 65 

Andros arrived in Boston as governor of New England, December 20 . 65 

Androa deposed, April 18 65 

King William's War 86 

Schenectady burned by the Indians and the Freuch, February 9 . . 86 

Salem witchcraft 65 

Queen Anne's War .... 87 

Port Royal, N. R., captured by the British and named Annapolis . . 88 

North and South Carolina distinct royal provinces 84 

Washington born, February 22 84 

Georgia settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah, February 12 .... 85 

New Jersey a distinct royal province 76 

King George's War 88 

Louisburg captured by the British, June 17 89 

PYance took formal possession of the Ohio valley 89 

Great Britain granted lands in the Ohio valley to the Ohio Company . 89 

Battle at Great Meadows; Fort Necessity captured by the Freuch, July 4 93 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 



1755. 



1756. 
1757. 
1758. 



1760. 
1762. 
1763. 



The French driven from Acadia, June to December 
Braddock defeated in the battle of Monongahela, July 9 
The British defeated Dieskau at Lake George, September 8 
French under Montcalm captured Fort Oswego, August 14 . 
Fort William Henry surrendered to Montcalm, August 9 
Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga, July 8 . 
Louisburg taken by Amherst and Wolfe, July 27 . . . 
Fort Frontenac captured by the colonists, August 27 
Fort Duquesne taken by the British, November 25 . 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point abandoned by the French 
Niagara surrendered to the British, July 25 .... 
Battle of Plains of Abraham, September 13; Quebec surrendered 
Montreal surrendered to the British, September 8 . 
Havana and Manila captured by the British .... 

Peace of Paris, February 10 

Pontiac's War 



PAGK 95 



97 



96 
96 
97 
95 
97 
97 
98,99 
99 
99 
99 
100 



1765. 

1766. 
1767. 
1770. 
1773. 
1774. 

1775. 



1776. 



1777. 



1778. 



1779. 



The Stamp Act passed, Marcli 8 120 

The Stamp Act repealed by Parliament, March 18 122 

A tax imposed on tea, glass, paper (Townshend Act), June 29 . . . 122 

Boston Massacre, March 5 123 

The tea thrown overboard in Boston harbor, December 16 ... . 123 

"Boston Port Bill" passed, March 31 123 

First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, September 5 . . .124 

Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19 124 

Allen and Arnold took Ticonderoga, May 10, and Crown Point, May 12 127, 128 

Washington elected commander in cliief, June 15 128 

Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17 127 

Battle of Quebec ; Montgomery killed, December 31 129 

Boston evacuated by the British troops, March 17 130 

Attack on Fort Moultrie, June 28 130 

Declaration of Independence, July 4 131 

Battle of Long Island, August 27 133 

Fort Washington taken, November 16 134 

Battleof Trenton, December 26 135 

Battle of Princeton, January 3 136 

Battle of Oriskany, August 6 139 

Battle of Bennington, August 16 140 

Battle of Brandywine, September 11 137 

First battle of Saratoga, September 19 140 

Philadelphia captured by the British, September 26 137 

Battle of Germantown, October 4 137 

Second battle of Saratoga, October 7 141 

Surrender of Burgoyne, October 17 142 

American independence acknowledged by France, February 6 . . . 144 

Battle of Monmouth, June 28 144 

Massacre of Wyoming, July 3 146 

British captured Savannah, Ga., December 29 147 

Vincennes captured by George Rogers Clark, February 24 . . . .149 

Stony Point captured by General Wayne, July 16 148 



iv CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 

1779. Sullivan (Icfoatcil tlie Iu(li:ius at Nowtown, August 29 . . . PAGE 143 

I'aul Jqnes took tlie .svvv/yx'.s, Heiitcihb('r23 149 

D'EstaiiiiL? aud Liiifolu n pulsed at Savaimali, October 9 147 

1780. Clmrlestou suireud»red to the Britisli, May 12 150 

Battle of Camdeu, August 10 151 

Arnold's trea.son discovered; lie lied, Sciiteuil)er 25 155 

Battle of Kiugs Mountain, October 7 153 

1781. Battle of Cowpens, January 17 156 

Greene's celebrated retn at, January and February 156 

Arti(!le^ of Confederation in force, March 1 1C3 

Battle of (iuilford Court House, March 15 157 

Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8 137 

Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19 159 

1782. Savannah evacuated by the British, July 11 160 

Charleston, S. C, evacuated by the British, December 14 160 

1783. Treaty of peace signed at Paris, Septemlxr 3 161 

New York evacuated by the British, Novendier 25 ..... ico 

1787. Shays's rebellion in Massachusetts 104 

Ordinance of 1787, for the government of the Northwest Territory, July 13 . 163 

Constitution of the United States adopted by the convention, September 17 164 

1787-88. Constitution adopted by eleven States 164 

1789. Washington inaugurated, April ."JO 169 

1?'.)1. Vermont admitted to the I'nion, March 4 244 

1792. Discovery of Columbia Kiver l!y Captain (iray. May 11 247 

Kentuckj admitted to the Union, June 1 244 

Whitney invented the cotton gin 172 

1794. The Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20 172 

Whisky insurrection 172 

1795. Jay's treaty ratified by the Senate, June; by the President, August . . 173 

1796. Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 1 . .244 

1797. John Adams inaugurated, March 4 175 

1798. Alien and Sedition Uaws enacted 175 

1800. Capital removed to Washington 171 

1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4 17(; 

1801-05. War with Tripoli 181 

1803. Ohio admitted to the Union, February 19 244 

Louisiana purchased from France, April 30 176 

1807. The r/(t'.w|jertAe tired into l)y the /,f(VJf/;</, June 22 182 

The Clermont first ascended the Hudson 181 

Embargo on American ships, December 22 . . . • 183 

1809. James Madison inaugurated. March 4 183 

1811. Action between the /'rc«V/r»^ and the /.i7//( y.V//, May 16 184 

Battle of Tippecanoe, Novendier 7 183 

1812. Louisiana admitted to the Union, April 30 244 

War declared against Great Britain, June 19 184 

Detroit surrend(^red, August 16 185 

The ConstilHlioH captured the Ouerrieir, August 19 186 

1813. Battle of Frenchtown, J<iiuiary 22 . . . . • 188 

The C/i^-stt/jettAc captured by the .s7i«»(Ho>(, June 1 ... 190 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY v 

1813. Massacre of Fort Mimms, August 30 page 191 

Perry's victory on Lake Erie, September 10 189 

Battle of the Thames, October 5 , . , 190 

1814. Battleof Horseshoe Bend (Tohopeka), March 27 191 

Battle of Luudys Lane, July 25 192 

Washington capturert by the British, August 24 193 

Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Chaniplain, September 11 . . . .192 

Bombardment of- Fort McHeury, September 13 193 

Hartford Convention, December 15 193 

Treaty of peace, December 24 194 

1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8 194 

War with Algiers 195 

1816. Indiana admitted to the Union, December 11 . . . . . . .245 

1817. James Monroe inaugurated, March 4 196 

Mississippi admitted to the Union, December 10 245 

1818. Illinois admitted to the Union, December 3 245 

1819. Florida purchased of Spain, February 22 200 

Alabama admitted to the Union, December 14 245 

1820. Missouri Compromise passed, March 3 197 

Maine admitted to the Union, March 15 245 

1821. Missouri admitted to the Union, August 10 245 

1823. Monroe Doctrine enunciated, December 2 200 

1825. John Quincy Adams inaugurated, March 4 201 

Erie Canal opened, October 26 202 

1829. Jackson inaugurated, March 4 203 

1831. First party national convention (the Antimasons') held, September . . 206 

1832. Black Hawk War 207 

Nullification in South Carolina 205 

1833. Public deposits withdrawn from Bank of the United States .... 206 
1835-42. Seminole War 207 

1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15 245 

1837. Michigan admitted to the Union, .Tanuary 26 . 246 

Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4 208 

Business panic 208 

1841. William H. Harrison inaiigurated, March 4 210 

President Harrison died, April 4 210 

John Tyler inaugurated, April 6 211 

1842. Northeast boundary settled by treaty, August 9 ...... 213 

1844. First magnetic telegraph line completed 212 

1845. Florida admitted to the Union, March 3 246 

James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4 215 

Texas admitted to the Union, December 29 246 

1846. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8 ' . ' . . . .215 

Congress declared war against Mexico, May 13 216 

Northwest boundary settled by treaty, June 15 ...... 221 

Monterey captured, September 24 216 

Iowa admitted to the Union, December 28 ..<,.... 246 

1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23 216 

Vera Cruz captured, March 29 218 

Mexico surrendered, September 14 220 



vi CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 

1848. Gold discovered in California, January 18 PAGE 221 

Treaty of peace with Mexico, February 2 220 

Wiscousiu admitted to the Union, May 29 246 

1849. General Taylor inaugurated, March 5 223 

1850. General Taylor died, July 9 223 

Millard Fillmore inaugurated, July 10 223 

Califoi-nia admitted to the Union, September 9 246 

1863. Franklin Pierce inaugurated, March 4 225 

Gadsden purchase, by treaty with Mexico, December 30 ... , 228 

1854 Commodore Perry's treaty with Japan, March 31 229 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill enacted, M.ay 30 225 

1857. James Buchanan inaugurated, March 4 230 

Dred Scott decision, March 6 230 

1858. Minnesota admitted to the Union, May U 247 

1859. Oregon admitted to the Union, February 14 247 

1860. South Carolina seceded from the Union, December 20 232 

1861. Steamer ,9<aro/<A<; T7cs<flrcd upon, January 9 235 

Kansas admitted into the Union as a State, January 29 247 

Southern Confederacy formed at Montgomery, February 4 . . . .232 

1861. Abraham I.,iiicoln inaugrurated, 3IarcU 4 249 

Fort Sumter flred upon by Confederates, April 12 251 

Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21 .... 256 

Battle of Wilsons Creek, Mo., August 10 258 

Forts at Hattcras Inlet, N. C, captured by Union forces, August 29 , . 259 

Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va., September 10 256 

Port Royal, 8. C, taken by Union forces, November 7 259 

Seizure of Mason and Slidell, November 8 259 

1862. Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Union forces, February 6 261 

Roanoke Island, N. C, taken by Union forces, February 8 . . . .267 
Fort Donelson, Tenn., taken by Union forces, February 16 . . , .262 

Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 7, 8 202 

Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9 269 

Newbern, N. C, taken by Union forces, March 14 268 

BattleofShiloh (Pittsburg Landing), Tenn., April 6, 7 262 

Island No. 10 captured by Union forces, April 7 264 

Fort Pulaski, Ga., captured by Union forces, April 11 268 

New Orleans captured by Union forces, April 25 267 

Yorktown, Va., occupied by McClellan, May 4 271 

Jackson's Shenandoah campaign. May 23 to Juno 9 272 

Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, Va., May 31, June 1 272 

Memphis, Tenn., surrendered by the Confederates, June 6 . . . .264 

Seven Days' battles, June 25 to July 1 S'S 

Second battle of Bull Run, Va. August 29, 30 276 

Harpers Ferry captured by the Confederates, September 15 . . . .277 

Battle of Antietam, Md.. September 17 277 

Battle of luka, Miss., September 19 265 

Battle of Corinth, Miss., October 4 265 

Battle of Perryville, Ky., October 8 264 

Battle of Fredericksburg, Va., December 13 278 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY -vii 

1862. Battle of Chickasaw Bluff, Miss., December 29 page 266 

Battle of Miufreesboro, Tenn., December 31, and January 2, 1863 . . .265 

1863. EmaucipatioQ Proclamation, January 1 277, 279 

Arkansas Post taken by Union forces, January 11 266 

Fort Sumter, 8. C, bombarded by Union fleet, AprU 7 288 

Grant's campaign before Vicksburg, May 1-17 280 

Battle of Chancellors ville, Va., May 2, 3 284 

West Virginia admitted to the Union, June 19 309 

Battle of Gettysburg, Pa., July 1-3 286 

Vicksburg, Miss., surrendered by the Confederates, July i . . . ,280 

Port Hudson surrendered by the Confederates, July 8 281 

Draft Riot in New York city, July 13-16 286 

Fort Wagner, S. C, occupied by Union forces, September 7 .... 289 

Battle of Chickamauga, Ga., September 19, 20 282 

Battle of Chattanooga, Tenn., November 24, 25 282 

Siege of Knoxville, Tenn., raised, December 4 284 

1864. Battle of Olustee, Fla., February 20 . . 303 

Battle of Sabine Crossroads, La., April 8 ...... . 290 

Fort Pillow, Tenn., captured by the Confederates, April 12 ... . 290 

Battle of Wilderness, Va., May 5, 6 . . 295 

Battle of Spottsylvania, Va., May 8-12 295 

Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14, 15 291 

Battle of New Market, Va., May 15 296 

Battle of Cold Harbor, Va., June 3 296 

Battle between the Kcarsarge and the Alabama, June 19 300 

Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga., June 27 292 

Battle of Monocacy, Md., July 9 . . . 298 

Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20, 22, 28 292 

Mine explosion, Petersburg, Va., July 30 297 

Farragut entered Mobile Bay, Ala., August 5 301 

Atlanta, Ga., taken, September 2 292 

Battle of Winchester, Va., September 19 298 

Battle of Cedar Creek, Va., October 19 299 

Nevada admitted to the Union, October 31 309 

Battleof Nashville, Tenn., December 15, 16 293 

Savannah, Ga., occupied by Sherman, December 21 294 

1865. Fort Fisher, N. C, taken by Union forces, January 15 302 

Columbia, S. C, occupied by Sherman, February 17 304 

Charleston, S. C, occupied by Union forces, February 18 .... 304 

Battles of Averysboro and Benton ville, N. C, March 16, 19 . . . . 304 

Fort Stedman, Va., attacked by Confederates, March 25 306 

Battleof Five Forks, Va., April 1 306 

Petersburg and Richmond taken, April 2, 3 306 

Lee's army surrendered, April 9 307 

President Lincoln assassinated, April 14 309 

1865. Andrew Johnson inaag:urated, April 16 312 

Johnston's army surrendered, April 26 308 

Thirteenth Amendment adopted, December 18 314 

1866-70. The seceded States readmitted to the Union 314, 315 



viii CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 

1867. Nebraska admitted to the Uuiou, March 1 PAGE 359 

Alaska purchased from Russia, by treaty of March 30 316 

1868. President Johusou acquitted ou impeachmeut trial, May 16, 21 . . .315 
Fourteenth Ameudmeut adopted, July 28 315 

1869. Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated, March i 317 

1870. Fifteenth Ameudmeut adopted, March 30 319 

1871. Treaty of Washingtou, May 8 322 

1873. Business panic 320 

1876. Custer massacre, June 25 320 

Colorado admitted to tlie Union, August 1 359 

1877. Kutherford B. Hayes inaugurated, March 5 324 

Great railroad strike, July to October 325 

1879. Specie payment of United States notes resumed, Jauuarj- 1 . . . .325 

1881. James A. Garfield inaugurated, March i 326 

President Garfield died, September 19 326 

Chester A. Arthur inaugurated, September 20 326 

1882. First Chiuese Exclusion Act, May 6 327 

1883. Civil Service Act, January 16 327 

1885. Grover Cleveland iuaugurated, March 4 328 

1887. Interstate Commerce Act, February 4 330 

1889. Benjamin Harrison inaugurated, March 4 331 

North Dakota admitted to the Union, November 2 359 

South Dakota admitted to the Union, November 2 359 

Montana admitted to tlie Union, November 8 359 

Washington admitted to tlie Union, Novemberll 359 

1890. Idaho admitted to the Union, July 3 359 

Wyoming admitted to the Union, July 10 359 

1393. Grover Cleveland iuaugurated, March 4 333 

1894. Great railroad strike, June, July 337 

1896. Utah admitted to tlie Union, January 4 360 

1897. William McKiuley inaugurated, March 4 339 

1898. War with Spain begun, April 21 . 343 

Battle of Manila Bay, May 1 343 

Battles near Santiago, July 1, 2 344 

Naval battle of July 3 345 

Hawaiian Islands aunexed by joint resolution of Congress, July 6 . . 347 

Santiago surrendered by the Spanish, July 17 346 

Manila captured by United States forces, August 13 343 

Treaty of peace; with Spain, December 10 346 

1899. Philii)piue iusurrection begun, February 4 351 

1901. President McKiuley died, Sei)tember 14 353 

Theodore Roosevelt iuaugurated, September 14 369 

1902. United States troops withdrawn from Cuba, May 20 352 

Philippine government act, July 1 352 

1903. Alaska Boundary Decision, October 20 371 

1905. Theodore Roosevelt reinaugurated, Martdi 4 372 

1907. Oklahoma admitted to the Union, November 16 37.3 

1909. William H. Taft inaugurated, March 4 376 

1912. New Mexico admitted to the Union, January 6 375 

Arizona admitted to the Union, February 14 375 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

STORIES IN THE HISTORY OF THE STATES for supplementary school reading 
(American Book Company). 

Swett's Maine. Spencer's North Carolina. Thwaites's Badger Slate. 

Brooks's OW Bay Slate. Harris's Georgia. Baldwin's Discovery of the 

Stockton's New Jersey. Howells's Ohio. Old Northivesl. 

Walton & Brumbaugh's Thompson's Indiana. Baldwin's Conquest of the 

Pennsylvania. Km)s.&a,A's, Kentucky. Old Northwest. 

Cooke's Old Dominion. McGee's Tennessee. Todd's New York City. 

Smithey's Virginia. Musick's Missouri. Rhoades's Philadelphia^ 

INTRODUCTION. — Catlin's North American Indians; Morgan's League of the Iro- 
quois; Bancroft's Native Races ; Thomas's Mound Exploration of the Biireau of Ethnol- 
ogy; Stone's Life and Times of Red Jacket, Life of Joseph Brant; Cooper's Leather 
Stocking Tales; Reeves's The Finding of Wineland tlie Good; Lowell's Chippewa Legend 
(poetry) ; Whittier's Bridal of Pennacook (poetry). 

EPOCH I. — Piske's Discovery of America; Irving's Columbus; Helps's Spanish 
Gonqtiest in America; Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, Conquest of Peru; T. Irvinff's 
Conquest of Florida ; Fronde's English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century ; Payne's 
Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen ; Hawks's History of North Carolina (vol. i.) ; Park- 
man's Pioneers of France in the Neiv World, Jesuits in North America, La Salle and the 
Discovery of the Great West; Shea's Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. 

Fiction.— Wallace's The Fair God ; Simms's The Damsel of Darien, Vasconselos, The 
Lily and the Totem ; Kingsley's Westward Ho t 

EPOCH II. — Fiske's Old Virginia and her Neighbours, Beginnings of New England, 
Dutch and Quaker Colonies; Palfrey's History of New England; Griffls's Pilgrims in 
their Three Homes ; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America; Doyle's 
English in America; Cooke's Virginia^; E. E. Hale's Massachusetts-; Johnston's 
Connecticut ' ; Sanborn's New Hampshire ; Greene's Short History of Rhode Island I 
Roberts's New York ' ; Scott's New Jersey ' ; Scharf's History of Delaivare ; Browne's 
Maryland^ ; Moore's History of North Carolina; McCrady's History of South Carolina 
(vols. i. and ii.) ; Jones's History of Georgia; Parkman's A Half Century of Conflict, 
Montcalm and Wolfe, Conspiracy of Pontiac; Coffln's Old Times in the Colonies. 

Fiction, — Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans ; Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion; 
Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair; Whittier's Legends of New England; Irving's 
Knickerbocker'' s History of New York; Thackeray's The Virginians; Johnstons To 
Have and to Hold. 

EPOCH ni.— Fiske's American Revoltdion, Critical Period of American History; 
Hart's Formation of the Union (chaps, iii.-vi.) ; Sloane's French War and the Revolu- 
tion (chaps, x.-xix.), Bancroft's History of the United States (vols, v., vi.) ; Hildreth'a 
1 American Commonwealths series. ^ Story of the States series. 

ix 



X REFERENCES FOR READING 

History of tJie United States (vol. iii.) Chauiiiug's United States, 1765-1865; Loasing'e 
Field Book of the Revolution ; Andrews's Manual of the Constitution. 

Biography.— Tudor's James Otis ; Uosmer's Thomas Uulchinson, Samuel Adams ' ; 
Morse's Benjamin Franklin^; Lodge's George Washington^ ; 'Morse' a John Adams ^i 
Sumner's Robert Morris. 

Fiction.— Coffin's Boys of'TG ; Cooper's Spy, Pilot, Lionel Lituoln ; Simms's Partisan, 
Mellichumpe, Seoul, Katharine Walton, Foraycrs, Eulaw; Ford's Janiee Meredith. 

Poetry.— Longfellow's Pavi Revere" s Ride ; Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker 
Hill; Read's rA« J2mnjf ; BtYaaX's Song of Marion's Men. 

EPOCH IV.— Hart's Formation of the Union (chaps, vii.-xli.) ; Walker's Making of 
the Nation', Burgess's Middle Period; McMaster's History of the People of the United 
States; Roosevelt's Winning of the West; .Scbouler's History of the United Slates (voIb. 
i.-v.); Rhodes's History of the United Slates (vols. 1., li., aud iii. to chap, xv.); Johns- 
ton's American Polilics; Drake's Making of the Great West; Wilson's Rise and Fall of 
the Slave Power; Benton's Thirty Years' View. 

Biography — Lodge's Alexander Hamillon^, Daniel Webster^ ; Morse's Thomas .Jef- 
ferson^ ; Gay's James Madison ' ; Schurz's Henry Clay '; Von Holts's John C. Calhoun i ; 
Magruder's John Marshall ' ; Humner's Andreio Jackson ' ; Wright's <!cneral Scott-. 

Fiction.— Hale's Man Without a Country, Philip Nolan's Friends; Ix)ngstreet'9 
Georgia Scenes in the First Half of the Reimblic ; Paulding's Diverting History of John 
Bull and Brollier Jonathan; C. A. Davis's Letters of J. Downing, Major; Stowe's Uncle 
Tom's Cabin ; Lowell's Biglow Papers. 

EPOCH V. — Rhodes's History of Ihe United States (vols, iii., iv.) ; Bchouler's History 
of the United States (vol. vi.) ; Cornte do Paris's History of Ihe Civil War; Ropes's .Story 
of the Civil War ; Campaigns of the Civil War (Scribner) ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil 
War (Century); Fiskc's Mississ-ippi Valley in the Civil War; Blaine's Ttrcnly Years of 
Congress (vol. i.); Orecley's American Conflict (vol. ii.); Davis's Rise and Fall of Ihe 
Confederate Government; Stephens's War between the Slates; Dana's Rcrolleelionsofthe 
Civil War; McPhersoii's Political History of the United Stales during the Great Rebellion. 

Biog:raphy.— Grant's Personal Memoirs; Sherman's Memoirs; Sheridan's Memoirs; 
Morse's Lincoln^; Mahan's Farragut-; Schuckers's Salmon P. Chase; Long and 
Wright's Memoirs of Robert E. Lee; Hughes's Joseph E. Johnston-; Mrs. Jackson's 
StonewallJaekson ; Mrs. Davis's Jc^erso/i Davis. 

Fiction.— Abbott's Battlefields and Yictory; Coflin's Marching to Victory, My Days 
and Nights on the Baltle-Field ; Hosmer's Color Guard ; Page's Marse Chan, Meh Lady ; 
Soley'e Sailor Boys of '61. 

EPOCH VI.— Andrews's History of the Last Qtiarter- Century ; McCulloch's Men and 
Measures of Half a Century; McPherson's Political History of the United Slates during 
the Period of Reconstruction ; Wilson's History of the A merican People (vol. v.) ; Warner's 
Studies in the South and West; Grady's New South; King's JAc Great South; Bryce's 
American Commonwealth; Shaler's United States of America; Wright's Industrial Evo- 
lution of the United States ; Hadley's Railroad Transportation ; Von Halle's lYusts ; 
Morris's War with Spain ; Brooks's Story of our War with Spain. 

Biography.— Storey's Charles Sumner * ; Pierce's Charles Sumner; Badeau's Grant 
in Peace; Wilson's Presidents of the United States. 

Fiction.— Helen Hunt Jackson's Rumona; Hale's Mrs. Merriam's Scholars; Eg 
gleston's A Man of Honor ; Page's Red Bock ; Tourg6o's A Fool's Errand. 

I American Statesmen series. '^ Great Commanders series. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to di& 
solve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, 
among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of 
nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

"VVe hold these truths to be self-evident— that all men are created equal ; that they 
are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are 
life, liberty, and the purstiit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments 
are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
erned ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, 
it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute now government, 
laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as 
to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, in- 
deed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light 
and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are 
more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufiferable, than to right themselves by abol- 
ishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce 
them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the 
patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains 
them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king 
of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct 
object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, 
let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

1. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the 
public good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- 
portance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained; 
and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of 
people, unless those people would relinqmsh the right of representation in the Legis- 
lature—a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, 
and distant from the repository of their pubhc records, for the sole purpose of 
fatiguing them into comphance with his measures. 

5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly 
firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be 
elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned 
to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, 
exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur- 
pose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass 



lii DECLAKATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new 
appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to 
laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

9. He has made judges dependent on his -will alone for the tenure of their 
ofl3.ces, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers 
to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

11. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without tho con- 
sent of our Legislatures. 

12. He has affected^ to render the military independent of, and superior to, the 
civil power. 

13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our 
constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts 
of pretended legislation ; 

14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 

15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any muidere 
which they should commit on tho inhabitants of these States ; 

IG. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 

17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 

18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of a trial hy juiy ; 

19. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses ; 

20. For abolishing tho free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as 
to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same 
absolute rule into these colonies ; 

21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms o*f our governments ; 

22. For suspending ovu* own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

23. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 

24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

25. Ho is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circum- 
stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in tho most barbarous ages, and 
totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

26. Ho has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to 
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and 
brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

27. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring 
on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known 
rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have i)etitioned for redress in the most 
humble terms; our rejjeated petitions have been answered only by repeated 
injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define 
a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. "We have 
warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an un- 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE xiii 

warrantable jurisdiction over us. "We have reminded them of the circumstances of 
our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and 
magnanimity ana we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to 
disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections 
and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of con- 
sanguinity. "We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our 
separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war; in 
peace, friends. 

"We, therefore, the representatives of the "United States of America in general 
Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- 
tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people 
of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, 
and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between 
theni and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved, and 
that, as free and independent States, they have ftdl power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things 
which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declara- 
tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually 
pledge to each other o\ir Uves, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



NE"W HAMPSHIBE. 

JOSIAH BARTLETT, 

"William "Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 
Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Q-erry. 

RHODE ISLAND 
Stephen Hopkins, 

"WiLLLAM ElLERY. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
"William "Williams, 
Oliver "Wolcott. 

NE"W YORK. 
"William Floyd, 
Philip Livingston, 
Feancis Lewis, 
Lewis Mobbis. 



NEW JERSEY. 
Richard Stockton, 
John "Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton, 
George Clymeb, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James "Wilson, 
George Ross. 

DELAWARE. 
C^SAR Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean, 

MAR-YLAND. 
Sajuuel Chase, 
William Paca, 
Thomas Stons, 



Charles Carroll, of Car- 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George "Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jun., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 
William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jun., 
Thomas Lynch, Jun., 
Aethue Middleton. 

GEORGIA. 
Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
Gkoege Walton. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

WE, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, pi-oiuoto the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty 
to oui-selves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the 
United States of America. 

ARTICLE I.— Legislative Department. 

SECTION I. All legislative powera herein granted shall bo vested in a Con- 
gress of the United States, ■which shall consist of a Senate and Houso of Repre- 
sentatives. 

SECTION n.— Clause 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the 
electoi-s in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the 
most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Clause 2. No person shall bo a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, bo an inhabitant of that State in which he 
shall bo chosen. 

Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev- 
eral States which may bo included within this Union, according to their respective 
numbers, which shall bo determined by luiding to the whole number of free persons, 
including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, 
three fifths of all other persons. Tho actual enumeration shall be made within three 
years after the first meeting of the Congress of tho United States, and within every 
subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. Tho num- 
ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State 
shall havo at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall bo made, 
the State of New Hampshire shall bo entitled to chooso three ; Massachusetts, eight; 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, ono ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six; 
New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, 
ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, flvo ; and Gteorgia, three. 

Pbzahblk.— Name Ihe six objects of the Constltntloo. Who " ordained and eatabllshed" this Constltotlon T*I« 
the '• uuiou" one of states or of people 7 What branches of government are established under tho first three articles 
of the Constitution 7 

Abticlk l.—Si-ction 1. Whtt body has the "power of legislation"? (JVoje.— Tho "power of legislation" Is 
that of making laws.) Of what docs Congress consist? 

Section 2. Who com|)Osc the House of Representatives 7 WTio choose the representatives ? What arc the nccea- 
sary qualiflcatloiis of an elector (or voter) for a representative? How long is the term of a representative? Name 
the three quallQcations necessary for a ripresentatlve. Is a foreign-born person eligible to the office of representa- 
tive? How are representatives and direct taxes to bo apportioned among the states? How was the representatlvo 
population of the different states to be determined 7 What limit is there to the number of representatives? Is 
every sute entitled U) representation ? How many members were there in the first House of Representatives? How 
•flen must the Census be talicn ? How are vacancies in the House to be filled? Who eled. the officers of the House? 

xiv 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv 

Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

SECTION m.— Clause 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years; 
and each senator shall have one vote. 

Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of 
the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; 
of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at 
the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; 
and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legis- 
lature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until 
the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, 
when elected, bo an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

Clause 4. The Vice President of the United States shall be president of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other ofQcers, and also a president jrro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office 
of President of the United States. 

Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments : when 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the Presi- 
dent of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shaU preside ; and no person 
shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 

■Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, 
or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be 
Liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

SECTION rV.— Clause 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections 
for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla- 
ture thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

What body has the sole power of impeachment? {Ifotes.— The first census was taken in 1790; the "ratio of repre- 
sentation " being one representative for 33,000 persons. Tlie number of representatives is fixed by law each decade. 
The law of 19U made it 435. and the " ratio of representation ", according to the census of 1910, is 211,877 persons lor 
each representative. In March of the odd year there is a new House of Representatives. Each organized territory 
has a delegate who can sit in the House, but not vote. The states are each divided, by its own laws, into con- 
gressional districts, as many as the number of representatives to which it is entitled ; and the electors in each one 
of these vote for their representative. The phrase " all other persons " meant '* slaves " ; but this has been amended 
by the XlVth Amendment. The speaker is always a member of the House ; the clerk, sergeant-at-arms, chaplain, 
etc., are not members. To impeach an officer is to accuse him of official misconduct.) 

Section 3. Of how many members docs the Senate of the United States consist? Who elect the senators? 
WTiat is a senator's term of office? Explain the classification originally made. What was the object? How aro 
vacancies filled ? State the three qualifications necessary for a senator. Who is the president of the Senate ? When 
only can he vote? Who chooses the other officers of the Senate? When can the Senate choose a president pro 
tempore (for the time being)? What " sole power" does the Senate possess? Who presides when the President of 
the United States is impeached? What number is needed to convict? What penalties can be infiicted in case of 
conviction? Is a person so convicted liable to a trial at law for the same offense? 

Section 4. Who prescribes the " tirae, place and manner" of electing representatives and senators? What power 
has Congress over the state regulations 7 How often, and when, must Congress meet ? (iVote.— Congress has pre- 



xvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Clausk 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law 
appoint a different day. 

SECTION v.— Clause 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, re- 
turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
stitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to 
day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such 
manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 

Clause 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its mem- 
bers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 

Clause 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require 
secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of cither house on any question 
shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

Clause 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
consent of tho other, adjourn for more than three dajrs, nor to any other place 
than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

SECTION VI.— Clause 1. Tho senators and representatives shall receive a com- 
pensation for their services, to bo ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of 
the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felo7iy, and breach of the 
peace, bo privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their re- 
spective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech 
or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during tho time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil offlco under tho authority of the United States, 
which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- 
creased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United 
States shall bo a member of either house during his continuance in office. 

SECTION Vn. — Clause 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments, as on other bills. 

Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the 
Senate, shall, before it become a law, bo presented to the President of the United 
States ; if he approve, ho shall sign it, but if not, ho shall return it, with his objec- 
tions, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections 

■cribcd that senators shall be chosen in the following manner : The Legislature elected last before the end of the 
senatorial term, on the second Tuesday after its first session, shall choose the next senator. The two branches of 
the Legislature shall meet separately and vote viva voce. They shall then assemble together, and if they agree on 
any person, he shall be considered duly elected ; if they disagree, the joint meeting shall vote viva voce from day 
to day, at 12 M. until a choice is made.) 

Section 5. Who decido.s upon the " elections, returns and quallBcatlons " of the representatives and of tho 
senators? What numbrr of the members is necessary for a quorum (needed to do business)? What business can 
a minority transact? What power is given each house of Congress of making and enforcing rules? What is the 
law with regard to keeping and publishing a journal of the proceedings? Wbcn must the yeas and uays be entered 
on the journal? What restrictinn is there upon the time aud place of a.1journment7 

Section 6. Who fixes and [lays tho salaries of members of Congress? Wliat special privileges arc granted to 
members of Congress ? To what offices are memlwrs of Congress ineligible ? Can a Congressman hold another ofllcc 
at the same time? 

Section 7. What bills must originate in the Bouse of Representatives ? What authority is given the Senate 
with regard to such bills ? Describe the three ways in which a bill may become a law — (I) With the President's 
ooacurrCDCc; (2) over his veto (I forbid); and (3) by non-return wilhia ten days. What "orders, resolutions, and 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xvii 

at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, 
two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if ap- 
proved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the 
votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the per- 
sons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house re- 
spectively. If any bill shall not bo returned by the President within ten days (Sunday 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like 
manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate 
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjourn- 
ment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same 
shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be 
repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Kepresentatives, according to 
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION Vm.— Clause 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common 
defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and 
excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 

Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on 
the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate tte value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures; 

Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

Clause 7. To establish post oflBces and post roads ; 

Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by seciiring, for 
limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective 
writings and discoveries; 

votes "must be submitted to the President? What is the object of this provision? (Notes.— Incase a vacancy occurs 
in the senatorial rfjiresentntion of any state, the governor of the state can appoint a senator to fill the place, who 
can hold office only until the next session of the Legislature. The method ot representation in the Senate gives 
in that body perfect equality to all the States, Rhode Island having the same power as Virginia. A senator is 
chosen by the Legislature, a representative by the people ; a senator serves for six years, a representative for two. 
The Senate tries an officer for misconduct, but he must be impeached by the House of Representatives. The salary 
of a Congressman is now ^7,500 per year, and mileage (20 cents per mile for every mile of travel by tlie usual 
route in coming and going). The Speaker of the House and the president ijro tempore of the Senate have each a 
salary of Jl 2,000 per year. One third of the Senate retire from office every two years. By the term "a Con- 
gress " is meant the body of senators and representatives holding office during any one representative term of two 
years; the Congress which began its term March 4, 1901, was the 57th. Each Congress " ends at noon of the 4th of 
March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session." The committees in the House are appointed 
by the Speaker; those in the Senate by itself. The classiflcafion of the Senate makes it a more efficient and con- 
servative body than the House, since in the former there are always two tliirds of the number old members, while 
the House is all new every two years. If the president of the Senate were a senator, it would give extra power to 
one state, which would be contrary to the plan of that body. 

Section 8. These eighteen clauses enumerate the powers granted to Congress. What power has Congress with 
regard to taxes? Duties or imposts (taxes on imported articles)? (Duties on exports are prohibited by Sec. 9, 
Clauses.) Excises (faxeson articles produced inthecountry)? Borrowing money? Regulating commerce? Natu- 
ralization? Bankruptcies? Coining money ? Counterfeiting? Post offices and post roads r Authors and inventors? 
Inferior courts? Piracies? Declaring war? Raising and supporting armies ? A navy? Government of the laud 



xviii Constitution ov the unitkd states 

Clacsk 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

Clause 10. To define and punish piiacies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 

Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

Clause 1;J. To provide and maintain a navy ; 

Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces; 

Clause I.'). To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them a.s may be employed in the service of the L'nited 
States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the ofBcers, and the 
authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, 
and the acceptanco of Congress, bocomo the seat of the government of the United 
States, and to exercise like authority over all places pxirchascd by the consent of 
the I^egislature of the State in wliich the same shall be, for the erection of foits, 
magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ;— And 

Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- 
tion in the government of the United States, or in any deimrtment or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX. — Clause 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the 
Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty 
may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 

Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall be passed. 

Clause 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

Clause 5. No tax or duty shall bo laid on articles exjKirted from any State. 



and naval forces? Calling forth the militia? Organliino; the militia? Over vhat places has Congress cxclusire 
legislation? What power is finally given to Congress to enable it to enfon-e its authority 7 What four restrictions 
upon the Congressional powers are made in this section 7 (Sec clauses 1, 2, 16 and 17.) (Xoles. — Ta.Tes may be 
either ilirect or nulirect ; the former are luul dinrtly upon persons or property ; the latter u|Mni nrtiiles iiiiporle.l 
or coiisuiiieil Natiiraliziition Is the pniress oy wUicli a foreign-lxini I'erson beronies a i iti/en. The prim ss of 
naturalization is as follows: (1.) The person declares, un oath before the proper authority, his intention of becoming 
a citizen of the United States. (2.) Two years, at least, having elapsed, the person takes the oath of allegiance, 
when he must prove by witness that ho has resided in the United States five years and in the state where ho 
seeks to he naturalized one year; that he has borne a good moral character, and has been well-disposed toward 
the government. The copyright, or exclDsive right of publishing a book, is given to an author for 28 years, with 
the privilege of extension :i8 years longer. An Internatlnnal copyright law was enacted in 1891. A patent Is 
now granted to an Inventor for 17 years, without the privilege of extension. Any crime pMnishablo with death 
Is a felony. " Letters of marque and reprisal " are commissions given to persons anthorizlug them to seize the 
property of another nation. By the terra " high soas " Is meant the open sea, the highway of nations.) 

Section 9. Eight clauses now follow, enumerating the powers denied to Congress. What prohibition was made 
concerning the slave.trade? Writ of habeas corpus? Bill of attainder? Ex-post-facto law? Direct tax? Exports 
from any state? Trade between the United States? Payments from the Treasury? Titles of nobility 7 United 
States office-holder receiving presents from a foreign power? (iVv(e«.— The tirst clause reterred tutiK' slave trade. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xix 

Clause 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound 
to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of 
appropriations made by law : and a regular statement and account of the receipts 
and expenditures of all pubUc money shall be published from time to time. 

Clause 8. No title of nobility shall bo granted by the United States : And no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent 
of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, oflfice, or title, of any kind 
whatever, from any Mng, prince, or foreign state. 

SECTION S. — CI/AUSE 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of 
credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; 
pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of 
contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or 
duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing 
its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and impost, laid by any State 
on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and 
aU such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement 
or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as wiU not admit of delay, 

ARTICLE II. — Executive Department. 

SECTION I.— Clause 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected 
as f oUows : 

Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and 
representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no sena- 
tor or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the 
United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

or the importation of negroea from Africa for tiio purpose of enslaving them. A law was passed prohibiting the 
trade after January 1, 1S08, and in 1820 the tradi' was declared to be piracy. A writ of habeas corpus is a written 
order from a magistrate directing that a certain person shall he brought before him ; its object is to guard against 
false imprisonment or trial in a prejudiced court. A bill of attainder is an English term, meaning an act which 
without trial inflicts death fnr treason; attainder of treason can not in the United States work ''corruption of 
blood" so as to prevent a person from transmitting lands to his descendants. An es-post-facto law makes an act 
criminal or penal which was not so at the time it was committed. A United States office-holder, wishing to accept 
a present or distinction offered him by any foreign power, must ask permission of Congress before he can re- 
ceive it.) 

Section 10. Three clauses now follow enumerating the powers denied to the several States. What prohibition 
was made with regard to treaties ? Letters of marque and reprisal 7 Coinage of money 7 Issuing bills of credit 
(bills to circulate as money)? Making any other legal tender than gold or silver? A bill of attainder? An ex-post- 
facto law? The impairing of contracts ? Titles of nobility 7 Imposts? Keeping troops? Making peace or war ? 

Article II. — Section 1. In whom is the executive power vested? {Note. — The executive power is that of exe- 
cuting the laws.) How long is the President's term o." office 7 The Vice President's ? Who are the presidential 
electors? How many are there from each state? Who are ineligible to the office? (Xote. — The next clause in the 
original Constitution described the method of electing a President ( pp. 165, 180), but this has been superseded by the 



XX CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Clause 3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

Clause 4. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall bo eligible to the 
office of President ; neither shall any person bo eligible to that office who shall 
not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident 
within the United States. 

Clause 5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, 
the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law pro- 
vide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the Presi- 
dent and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and 
such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

Clause 6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for 
which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any 
other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Clause 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- 
lowing oath or affirmation :— " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully 
execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my 
ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

SECTION n.— Clause 1. The President shall be commander in chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called 
into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, 
of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating 
to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves 
and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur ; and 
he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall 
appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consiils, judges of the Supreme 
Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments aro not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the 
Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think 
proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

Xllth Anieniiment. ) Wliat power lias Congrt-as over the electors? What are the necessary qualifications for the 
office ol President? Iticaseofa vacancy, who would become President' (.Vo(e.— In case of a vacancy in the office of 
both President and Vice President, the otticc of President will devolve, in regular succession, upon the members of 
the cabinet (page :)28j. The electors ate now chosen on "the Tuisilay next after the tirst Monday In the last 
November " of each presidential term of office. The electors meet to cast their ballots, generally at the capital 
of each state, on "the second Monday in January next following their appointment." When the plan 
of choosing electors was origlDally adopted, it was Intended lo choose good men who should themselves select 
the President; but it soon came about that the doctors wero pledged to their respective candidates before their 
own election. The President's salary is $7ti,(XX) per year, together with the use of the White House.) Can the 
salary of a President bo changed during hia lerm of office T Can ho receive any other emolument from the national 
or any state government? Repeat the President's oath of office. 

Section 2. Three clauses now follow enumerating the potoert granted to the Pretident. What authority has 
the President over the United States array and navyt State militia? The chief officers of the different executivo 
departments? (Kee pp. 171, 329.) Reprieves and pardons 7 The mailing of treaties? Appointment of ambasg» 
dors? Judges of the Supreme Court, etc.? Filling vacancies? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxi 

Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall 
expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION m.— He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the 
state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall 
judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to 
the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; 
he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the 
laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States 

SECTION IV. — The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction 
of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 



ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department. 

SECTION I.— The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time 
ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold 
their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services 
a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance m office. 

SECTION n.— Clause 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases. In law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under their authority ;— to all cases affecting ambas- 
sadors, other public ministers, and consuls ;— to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
jurisdictioii ;— to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ;— to con- 
troversies between two or more States ; — between a State and citizens of another 
State ;— between citizens of different States ;— between citizens of the same State 
claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have 
original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court 
shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions 
and Tinder such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

Section^. Define Vae duties cf the Preeident. Name these duties with regard (1) to Congress, (2) to ambas- 
sadors, and (3) to United States otBcers. (JVo<c — Washington and Adams in person read their messages to 
Congress : the present plan of seniling tlie message by a private secretary was ronimenced by Jefferson.) 

Section 4. For what crimes and in what way may any United States officer be removed from office ? 

Article III.— Section 1. In what is the judicial power of the United States vested ? (Afoee.— The judicial 
power is that of interpreting and applying the laws. ) How long do the judges hold oifice? Can their salary be 
changed during their term of office .•■ 

Section 1 defines the Jurisdiction of the United States Courts. Name the cases to which the judicial power ot 
the United States extends. In what cases does the .Supreme Court have original jurisdiction.' Appellate juris- 
diction ? What is the law with regard to trial by jury .= Where must such a trial be held? Where may a crime 
be committed "not within a state ? " (Xotes.— The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associate 
justices. The salary of the chief justice is $15,000 and that of an associate $lt,500 per annum. This court meets 
at Wa.^liington annually on the first Wednesday in December. A citizen of the District of Columbia, within the 
meaning of the Constitution as above, is not a citizen of a state. By original jurisdiction is meant the court in 
which the case begins ; by appellate, is indicated a trial after an appeal from a lower court. } 



xxii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Clause 3. The trial of all erimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have 
been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at 
such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

SECTION m.— Clause 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid 
and comfort. 

Clause 2. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of 
two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

Clause 3. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except 
during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. — General Provisions. 

SECTION I.— Full faith and credit shall bo given in each State to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; and the Congress 
may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and pro- 
ceedings shaU be proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION n.— Clause 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

Clause 2. A x>erson charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of 
the executive authority of the State from which ho fled, be delivered up, to be 
removed to the State having jurisdiction of tho crime. 

Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation 
therein, be discharged from such servico or labor, but shall be delivered up on 
claim of the piarty to whom such service or labor may be due. 

SECTION m.— Clause 1. New States may bo admitted by the Congress into 
this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within tho jurisdiction 
of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more 
States, or parts of States, without the consent of tho Legislatures of the States 
concerned as well as of the Congress. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other proi)erty belonging to the 
United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to 
prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

SECTION IV.— The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against inva- 

Sectton 3. Tn what does treason consist? What, proof Is required T Who fixes the punishment 7 What limit 

Is assigned T 

Abticli IV.— Section 1. What is the law with regard to state records, Jadlcial proceedings, etc.? 

Section 2. Wliat privileges has the citizen of one state In all the others? Can a criminal or an apprentice 
escape by fleeing into another state? (JVofe.— Clanse 3 originally Included fugitive slaves, but that application wad 
aanulled by the Xllltb Amendment.) 

Section 3. Stat* the law with regard to the (brmatlon and admission of new slates. What power has CoDgreF 
over the territory and property of the Dnlted States? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxiii 

sion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legis- 
lature can not be convened) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. — Power of Amendment. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures 
of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, 
which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- 
stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or 
by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification 
may be proposed bv the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made 
prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect 
the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no 
State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. — Miscellaneous Provisions. 

Clause 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adop- 
tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this 
Constitution, as under the confederation. 

Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the 
judges in every State shall bo bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or 
laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of 
the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation 
to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be reqmred as a 
qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII.— Ratification of the Constitution. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient foi the 
establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
President, and Deputy from Virginia. 

Section 4. What mu^t Congress guarantee to every state? When must Congress protect the states? 

Article V. — State the two ways in which amendments to the Constitution may be proposed. The two ways 
in which they may be ratified. What restriction in this article has now lost all force? What provision for the 
benefit of the smaller states is attached to this article ? 

Article VI. —What debts did the United States assume when the Constitution was adopted 1 Wliat is th* 
supreme law of the land ? Who are required to tate an oatb or affirmation to support the Coustitutior. of the 
United States? Can a reilgigas teat be exacted? 



CONSTITTTTTON OF THE UNITED STATES 



NE"W" HAMPSBXBE. 
John Lanodon, 
Nicholas Qumah. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Nathaniel GtoKUAii, 
KcFus Kino. 

CONNECTICUT. 
"WiLLiAH Samuel Johnson, 
BoQER Sherman. 

NEW YORK. 
Ai£XANDER Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY. 
WiLUAM Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin- 
Robert Morris, 
George Clymer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersol'^ 
James Wilson, 
qodterneub morris. 



Attest: 



delaware. 
George Reed, 
Gunning Bedford, Jb., 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND. 

James MoHenry, 

Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 

Daniel Carroll. 

VIRGINIA. 
John Blair, 
James Madison, Jr. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 
William Blount, 
Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 
John Rutledoe, 
Charles C Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

GEOlvcHA- 
Vvilliam Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 

WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 



AMENDMENTS 

To the Constitution of the United States. Ratified according to the 
Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. 

ARTICLE I.— Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
I)etition the government for redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE n.— A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 



Asncu VII. What was necessary for the adoption of this Constltation 7 (Note, p. 101.) In what year was It 
adopted? 

AMXNSiiBim. (M)(M. — The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789 at the first session of the First Con- 
gress, and In 1791 were declared adopted. They are of the nature of a Bill of RiRhts, and were passed In order to 
•atlsfy those who complained that the CoiiHtitatiou did not sufficiently (fuard the rights of the people.) 

ABTicLi I. What Kuarantees are provided concerning religious freedom 7 Freedom of speech and the pressT 
Peaceable assembly and petition 7 

Aanou II. What guarantee U given with regard to the right of hewing anniT 



CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES xxv 

ARTICtiE m.— No soldiers shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- 
Bcribed by law. 

AETICLiE rv.— The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and eflfects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- 
lated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or 
afiirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons 
or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE v.— No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except 
in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual 
service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the 
same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled 
in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, 
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shaU private property be 
taken for public use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI.— In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein 
the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa- 
tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory pro- 
cess for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel 
for his defense. 

ARTICLE VU.— In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States 
than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE V JJJL.— Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- 
posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X.— The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- 
tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or 
to the people. 

Abticlb III. Wbat is provided with regard to quartering soldiers upon citizens ? 

Abticle IV. What is provided with regard to unreasonable searches and warrants? 

Article V. What provisions are made with regard to a trial for capital offenses? Can a person be tried twice 
for the same crime? Can a criminal be forced to witness against himself? When can private property be taken 
for the public use ? 

Abticle VI. What important rights are secured to the accused in case of a criminal prosecution 7 

Abticle VII. When is the right of jury trial guaranteed? How must a fact tried by a jury be re-examined? 

Abticle VIII. What guarantee is given with regard to excessive bail or fine and unusual punishment? 

Abticlb IX. Does the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution have any effect upon those not enu- 
merated 7 

ABTicut X. Wkat declaration is made ooQoeruiDg the powers neither delegated to Congresa nor forbidden tbe 
itates? 



xx^i CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

ARTICLE XI.— The judicial power of the United States shall not he construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of 
the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any 
foreign state. 

ABTICLE Xn.— The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not bo an 
inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots 
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as 
Vice President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as Presi- 
dent, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes 
for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — 
the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and IIouso of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ;— 
the pei-son having the greatest number of votes for President, shall bo the Presi- 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if no person have such majority, then from the i)ersons having the highest 
numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in 
choosing tho President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from 
each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member 
or members from two thirds of tho States, and a majority of all the States shall 
be necessary to a choice. And if tho House of Representatives shall not choose a 
President whenever tho right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth 
day of March next following, then tho Vice President shall act as President, as in 
the case of tho death or other constitutional disability of the President. The 
person having the greatest number of votes as Vice President, shall be tho Vice 
President, if such number be a majority of tho whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if no person have a majority, then from tho two highest numbers on the list, 
the Senate shall choose tho Vice President ; a quorum for tho purpose shall consist 
of two thirds of tho whole number of senators, and a majority of tho whole num- 
ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
tho ofllce of President shall bo eUgiblo to that of Vice President of tho United 
States. 

ARTICIiE Xm.— Section 1. Neither slavery nor i nvoluntary servitude, except 
as a punishment for crime, whereof the person shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within tho United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce tliis article by appropriate 
legislation. 

Abticle XI. (Kotc — Tbta amendment was proposed at tho Brst Rcssion of tho Third CongrcfiR, 1794, and 
declared adopted in 1798.) What restriction is placed on the judicial power of the United States t Can the citizens 
of one state bring a suit against another state? 

Akticlb XII. (A'ole. — This amendment was proposed at tho first session of the Eighth Congress. 1803. and 
declared adopted in 1804. It grew up out of tho contest in the House of RepresenUtivcs at tho time of Jefferson's 
election ; he was not chosen until the 36th ballot.) Describe in full the mode of choosing the President by tho 
electors. The Vice President. State the essential qualiOcatlnns of the Vice President. (See Art. 11., Sec. 1, Clause 
4.) In case there is no choice by the electors, how is the President elected ? Describe the mode of election in the 
Bouse. If a President should not be chosen by March 4, who would act as President? 

Akticlh XIII. (.Voec— This amendment was proposed at the second session of the Thlrty^elghth Congress, 1865, 
and declared adopted in 1865. It grew out of the Civil War. Sec p. 3U,) Repeat the ameadmeot aboUahing 
•Isvvry aud lavolunlary servitude la tbo Uoited Statut. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxvii 

ARTICLE XTV.— Section 1. All persons bom or natiiralized. in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; 
nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due 
process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- 
ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each 
State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for 
the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, 
representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the 
members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
such State, being twenty-one yeara of age and citizens of the United States, or in 
any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis 
of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shaU bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
yeai-s of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall bo a senator or representative in Congress, or 
elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under 
the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as 
a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of 
any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to sup- 
port the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But 
Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of tho United States, aiithorized by 
law, including debts incurred for payment of pension and bounties for services in 
suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the 
United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred 
ia aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims 
shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, 
the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XA''.— Section 1. Tho rights of citizens of the United States to vote 
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or b/ any State, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI.— The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on 
incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several 
States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

Article XIV. {Sole. — This amendment was adopted in 1868. See p. 315.) Wlio are citizens of tlie United 
States? Wiiat restrictions are laid ui>on tile states ? How are representatives apportioned among tlie states ? . How 
does this amend Art. 1., Sec. 2, Clause 3 ? What provisions are maile about offices ? About public debts 1* 

ARTICLE XV. (A^ofe.— This amendment was adopted in 1870. See p. 319.) Repeat the amendment. 

Article XVI, (Note. — This ameudineut was adopted iu 1913.) What is the effect ot this amendment? 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

These questions are placed at the close of the work rather than at the foot^of each 
page, in order to encourage a more independent uee of the book. As far as possible, 
topical recitations should be encouraged. When the subject is named, the pupil should 
be expected to tell all he knows about it. A little patience and practice iu this method 
will achieve wonderful results. The following pages often present topical questions 
in the hope of gradually leading the pupil to this system of study. The figures refer 
to the pages of the book. 

INTRODUCTION 

9. WTio were the Inhabitants of America a few hundred years ago ? How numerous 
were they in our country? How long had they lived here? What people are of the 
same descent as the Indians 7 How may people have traveled from one continent to 
the other ? Which Indians were most nearly civilized t 

10. What remains of them are found? What Indian remains are found in our 
country 1 Where do they occur? What were they designed for? What proof of their 
antiquity ? Describe the mound in Adams County, Ohio. What articles were buried 
in the mounds? Describe the pueblos. Where do they occur ? 

11, 12. What is meant by a tribe of Indians ? How are the tribes arranged in 
groups? Name five important groups. \Miere did the Indians of each group live? 
Give an account of the Iroquois confederacy. Were there any blacksmiths, carpenters, 
etc., among the Indians ? 

13-15. Were the Indians progressive ? In what were they skilled ? How were they 
governed? How did they regard labor? Describe the life of the women. The In- 
dian's disposition. His power of endurance. His religion. Did he have any idea of 
God? What is the condition of the Indians to-day ? 

16-17. Who were the Korthmen ? What traditions about their having discovered 
and settled America? Are these stories credible? Are there any remains of this 
people now existing? Were their discoveries of any value? At what date does the 
history of this country begin 1 Name the subjects and limits of the six epochs into 
which this history Is divided. 

FIRST EPOCH 

19. What was the state of geographical knowledge in Europe In the fifteenth cen- 
tury? W^hy could not sailors have crossed the ocean before as well as then? WTiy 
were books of travel more abundant then ? WTiy were they so eagerly read ? 

20. By what routes were goods from the East then obtained ? How were these 
affected by the Turkish conquests? What was the commercial problem of thatdayl 
What did the Portuguese do toward solving it? 

21. What was Columbus's idea? What facts strengthened his view? Why did he 
leek assistance ? Tell something of bis life. 

xxviii 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

22. Before whom did he lay his plan 1 How was it received 1 Did the king treat 
him fairly 1 To whom did Columbus apply next 1 Hov was he regarded ? What reply 
was made him? What did his triends do for himi What oflfer did Queen Isabella 
make 1 Were her jewels sold ? 

23. What new trouble assailed Columbusi What vessels composed his fleet? Give 
some of the incidents of the voyage. 

24. Did Columbus waver ? Describe the discovery of land. The landing. When 
and where was this? What region did Columbus think he had reached? What was 
one result of this ? For what did he search? 

25. 26. What other lands did Columbus discover? What of the first settlement of 
Spaniards ? Describe the reception of Columbus on his return. What was his great 
mistake ? How many subsequent voyages did he make ? When did he first reach the 
mainland ? Who had probably reached the mainland before this ? 

27, 28. What did Vasco da Gama do ? Cabral ? Vespucius ? How was America 
named ? Why was it not named for Columbus ? Who was John Cabot ? What dis- 
coveries did he make? Did his discoveries antedate those of Columbus? Who was 
Sebastian Cabot? How were the discoveries of the Cabots regarded? Of what value 
were they? What four nations explored the territory of the future United States? 
What portion of the continent did each explore ? What other nation gained part of 
America ? What part ? How ? 

29. What was the feeling in Spain? What effect was produced ? What did Cortes 
accomplish ? Pizarro ? Magellan ? Who took possession of the Philippines ? 

30-32. Who was Ponce de Leon ? What city did he found ? Why did he make an 
expedition? What land did he find? WTiy did he so name it? What success did he 
meet ? What discovery did Balboa make ? Describe the expedition of Narvaez ; its 
fate. What became of the survivors? Describe the expedition of De Soto. What 
region did he traverse ? What river was his burial place ? When ? What became of 
his companions 1 When, where, and by whom was the first town on the mainland of 
the United States founded? Origin of the name California? What islands in the 
northern Pacific did Spanish ships reach ? Result ? What did Coronado accomplish ? 

33. What did Cabrillo do ? What is the oldest town in the western United States i 
When and by whom was it founded ? What was the extent of Spanish possessions in 
North America in 1600 ? 

34. What was the attitude of the French toward the New World ? For what did 
many mariners search, after Magellan's voyage ? Why ? When was the northwest 
passage really found ? Of what value is it? What did Verrazano do ? When and by 
whom was the St. Lawrence River explored? 

35. Why was Montreal so named ? Who were the Huguenots ? What was Coligny's 
plan ? Give an account of the first expedition. Of the fate of the colony. Who led 
t'ae second expedition ? Where was the colony established? 

36. What was its fate ? Why did the Spaniards attack it ? Did France make further 
attempts to found colonies in the Southeast ? What French navigator was the next to 
ascend the St. Lawrence ? How did he find things at Hochelaga ? When, where, and 
by whom was the first agricultural colony established in America ? What was Acadia ? 
When, where, and by whom was the first permanent French settlement made in 
Canada ? What Indians did Champlaln aid ? 

37,38. What lake did Champlain discover? What battle did he fight? Result? 
Who were the Jesuits? What did they do in America? What was their purpose? 
What evidences of them remain ? Tell something of their heroism. Who was Father 
Marquette? Joliet? Whatdid they do? 



XXX QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

39. Who was La Salle? What did he do ? Was there any permanent result of his 
work ? What were the French claims on North America in 1700 } Compare with those 
of Spain. 

40, 41. When did England begin to play an Important part in maritime enterprise 1 
How was this shown! What did Frobishcr attempt to del V.'ith what success! 
What did Davis do t I/escribe the career of Sir Francis Drake. What was the " Span- 
ish main " ? Who ha<l sailed around the world before Drake did 1 (p. 20). 

42,43. What was the view of Sir Humphrey Gilbcrtl His fate? Give some 
account of Sir Walter Raleigh, ^^^lat was a patent 1 Describe Raleigh's first attempt 
to colonize America; his second attempt. How did he succeed 1 Why was Virginia 
so named 1 Tell of the introduction of tobacco into England. The story of Raleigh's 
smoking. 

44. What kept the interest in America alive? IMiat did Gosnold do? Pringi 
What was the Loudon Company ? What grant of land was made to it ? When, where, 
and by whom was tlie first permanent Eiiglisli settlement made in the United States? 

45. What Spanish attempt had been made to plant a colony near this? Wliat was 
the Plynioutli Company? What land wa.-> it to receive? What was a charter? Give 
some provisions of the charter granted to the London and Plymouth companies. 

46. When did the Dutch begin to take an interest in the New World? Who was 
Henry Hudson an I what did he do? What claim did tlie Dutch found on his explora- 
tions ? What na:iic did they give to this region ? Can you teU why ? (The country of 
the Dutch is called the Netherlands.) What became of Hudson ? 

47. Wliat European settlements were there in 1600 in what is now the United States ? 
Name the settlements that were made soon after. What centuries were characterized 
by explorations? Which (me by settlements? State the claims of the Spanish, French, 
English, and Dutch. Did they know the real extent of their claims? Why did the 
claims conflict ? Eow were they settled ? 



SECOND EPOCH 

49. Name the thirteen English colonies. Were they united during this epoch i 
When and where was the first permanent settlement made in Virginia! What was 
the character of these colonists ? 

50, 51. Who saved the colony from ruin ? Mention the services of John Smith. 
Some incidents of his life. Tell the story of his capture by Intlians, and his escape. 
Why did he ujaku some of his expeditions at this time? 

52. What change in the government of the colony was made by the second charter? 
Was it based on tlie principle of self-government? What change was made in the 
extent of the colony 1 AMiat was the " Starving Time " 1 Why did this happen? 

63. How was Jamestown saved a second time from ruin? What change was made 
by the third charter? Tell what you can of Pocahontas. WTjere and when did the first 
legislative body in America meet ? Of what did it consist ? 

54. When and by whom was the first written constitution granted In America? 
How much self government was allowed by it? State some particulars of the pro&- 
peritj' of tli(! colony. What was the chief product? 

55. How far did the Virginia settlements now extend? How were domestic ties 
formed? When and how was negro slavery introduced? What white servants were 
there? What Indian troubles occurred at this time (1622) ? 

66. How did the Indian troubles end ! What change was next made in the govern- 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxi 

ment of the colony J Why ? What was the Navigation Act 1 Why was it oppressive 1 
Whiit was the conduct of the majority of the assembly i 

57. What two parties gradually grew up? Tell the story of Bacon's rebellion. 
Was Bacon a rebel or a patriot 1 What was the conduct of Berkeley i 

57-59. Describe John Smith's explorations in the North. What was the Plymouth 
Company? What new patent did it receive in 1620, and what new name did it take? 
VvTio were the Pilgrims? Who were the Puritans ? What was the difference between 
the Separatists and the other Puritans ? Why did the Pilgrims come to this coimtry ? 

60. Where did the Pilgrims land? When? Where had they intended to land? 
Did they have a right to settle where they did? What was their character? Tell of 
their piety. Of their sufferings. 

61. Why did not the Indians disturb them ? What Indians visited them ? How did 
Governor Bradford reply to the thi-eat of Canouicus ? Who was Miles Standish ? Tell 
about the scarcity of food. Did the plan of working in common succeed? How did 
the colony progress ? Describe its government. What finally became of Plymouth 
colony ? 

62. Who settled about Massachusetts Bay ? Why did this colony grow so rapidly 1 
What settlements were iucliuled iu the Massachusetts Bay colony? Did the Puritans 
tolerate other forms of religion ? Why ? 

63. Give an account of the difficulty with Koger Williams. What settlement did 
he fouud? What was the difficulty with Anne Hutchinson? How were the Quakers 
treated? What union of colonies was formed in 1C43 ? How long did it last? 

64. What was the object of this union ? What Indian chiefs befriended Massachu- 
setts and Virginia in their early history? Who was King Philip? Cause of King 
Philip's war? How did the colonists protect themselves ? Result of the war? How 
did the Navigation Act affect Massachusetts? 

65. G6. Did the colonists obey it? What change was made in the government of 
Massachusetts? Give some account of the rule of Andros. What form of government 
was liually given to Massachusetts ? Give an account of the Salem witchcraft. What 
do you know as to the general belief in witchcraft ? What is a " witch " 1 TeU what 
you can of the settlement of New Hampshire ; of Maine. 

67, 68. With what colony were these two closely associated ? Why were they so 
named? What two nations claimed the Connecticut valley? Give an account of the 
settlements at Windsor, Hartford, and Saybrook. Tell something of the Winthrops, 
father and son (pp. 62, 68). How were the Narragansett Indians kept from joining the 
Pequots against the whites ? 

69. Tell about the Pequot war. What three distinct colonies were formed in Con- 
necticut? What peculiarities in the government of each? How were they combined 
into one ? 

70. Why was the charter of 1662 so highly prized ? Tell about Andres's visit. Who 
founded Providence ? When ? ^^^lat people settled on the island called Rhode Island ? 

71. What was the " religious toleration " idea which Williams stamped upon his 
colony? How were the two plantations united? For what laws was this colony 
famous ? When, where, and by whom was New York first settled ? 

72. 73. WTio were the patroons ? What was the character of the history of New York 
under its four Dutch governors ? WTio was the ablest of them ? How did he settle 
disputes with neighboring colonies? When did the colony surrender to the English? 
WTiy ? What change was made in its name ? Why ? 

74. Did the English rule satisfy the colonists? Was the English occupation perma- 
nent? For what is Dongan's governorship noted? What was the character of the 



xxxii QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

English rule during the next few years, under King James II ? Who was Andros 1 
Who was Captain I^isler ? Why was ho executed ? 

75. In what colony was New Jersey formerly embraced? Who first settled it? 
How did the English obtain possession of iti To whom was it granted ? Where and 
oy whom was the first English settlement made? How was New Jersey divided? 
WTio settled the two parts? How did New Jersey come to be joined with Now York? 
To be made a separate province ? 

76. Where and by whom was the first permanent settlement made in Delaware? 
In Pennsylvania? ^Tio was the founder of Pennsylvania? Tell what you can of 
William Penn. Who were the Quakers? Tell some of their peculiarities. How did 
Penn obtain a grant of this territory ? Why was it so named ? What plan had Penn 
in mind ? 

77. What city did he found ? When? Meaning of its name ? How do you accoimt 
for its rapid growth ? What was the Great Law ? 

78. Give an account of Penu's treaty with the Indians. What was meant by " the 
three lower counties on the Delaware " ? What was the connection between this re- 
gion and Pennsylvania ? When and how did Penn's heirs give over their title to Penn- 
sylvania? WTiat was the Mason and Dixon Line? 

79. With what intent did Lord Baltimore secure a grant of land in America? 
When was the first settlement made ? Why was Maryland so named ? What advan- 
tage did the Maryland charter confer? What was the Toleration Act? How did 
religious toleration vary in the colonies ? 

80. 81. Give an account of Clayborne's rebellion. Of the diflSculties between the 
Catholics' and the Protestants. What territory was granted to Lord Clarendon and 
others ? By whom was the Albemarle colony settled ? The Carteret colony { Where 
was it located ? What do you say of the rapidity of its growth ? What beneficial influ- 
ence did the Huguenots have on the colony ? 

82. What was the Grand Model ? How was it unfitted for a new country ? 

83. Give an account of the buccaneers ; of Blackboard ; of Kidd. What of the 
Tuscarora Indians? \Miatwere the relations between the Carolina proprietors and 
the settlers ? 

84,85. How were the difficulties ended { How came Carolina to be divided ? By 
what coincidence is Georgia linked with Washington { With what intention was this 
colony planned ? Character of the settlers? Restrictions of the trustees? Result? 

86. How many intercolonial wars were there? If you include the Spanish war? 
(See p. 88, note.) Duration of King William's war? Cause? Describe the Indian 
attacks upon tho colonists. Tell the story of Mrs. Dustin. 

87, 88. WTiat attacks were made by the colonists in return ? Were they successful ? 
What was the result of the war? Give a complete account of Queen Anne's war. Tell 
the story of Mrs. Williams. Length of King George's war? Cause? Give an account 
of the Spanish war. 

89-91. Give an account of tho capture of Louisburg. Result of King George'swar. 
Length of the French and Indian war. Cause. Give an account of Washington's 
journey to the French forts. His return. What did the French do in the spring of 
1754 ? Tell the story of Washington's first liattle. 

9.3. Give an account of the capture of Fort Necessity. Tell about Franklin's Plan 
of Union. Name the five objective points of this war. 

94, 95. Why were they so obstinately attacked and defended ? Describe the defeat 
of General Braddock. Conduct of Washinirton. Give an account of the second expe- 
dition against Fort Duquesne. AMio finally captured the fort? What city now occu- 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxiii 

pies Its site? What was the principal cause of the easy capture of the fort? (See 
p. 97, note.) Give an account of the Cherokee war. What success did the English meet 
in Acadia? What cruel act disgraced their victory? What attempt was made on 
Louisburg? 

96. Who finally captured Louisburg? Describe the battle of Lake George. The 
fate of Fort William Henry. 

97. Describe the attack on Fort Ticonderoga by Abercrombie. When were Tlcon- 
deroga and Crown Point captured ? Describe the two attempts to capture Niagara. 
Who forced it to surrender ? When ? Describe the difficulties which General Wolfe 
met in his attack on Quebec. 

98. 99. How did he overcome them ? Describe the battle on the Plains of Abraham. 
Result? What cities were taken from Spain? Why? What were the conditions of 
peace ? 

100, 102. What did Great Britain do with her new territory? Describe Pontiac's 
war. What stratagems did the Indians use ? Eflfects of the French and Indian war ? 
How did the British officers treat the colonial officers ? 

103. Describe the people of the colonies at the close of the French and Indian war. 
How many kinds of government 1 Name and define each. Mention some laws. 

104-108. What kinds of local government? How did the people travel? Tell some- 
thing about the first public conveyance. Name some peculiar customs. Condition of 
morals in New England. Laws in regard to drinking. Describe the Sunday services 
in a Plymouth meetinghouse. Who were entitled to the prefix Mr. 1 What were com- 
mon people called? Tell about New England farm and village life. The houses. The 
kitchen. The food. 

109-111. Describe the " best room." What customs familiar to us are of Dutch 
origin? Tell something about life in New York. In Pennsylvania. How did the style 
of living in the South difi"er from that in the North ? Describe a Southern plantation. 

112, 113. What is said of the luxurious living in the South ? State of educatijn in 
New England? Tell something of the support given to schools. Of the founding of 
Yale College. Of the state of education in the Middle colonies. How many colonial 
colleges were there? What was the state of education iu the Southern colonies i Tell 
something about the early newspapers. 

114-117. What provisions for public worship? What diflerences between colonial 
and modern industry ? What were the chief occupations of each section ? What was 
the state of agriculture? Manufactures? Commerce? Describe the trade of some 
New Englanders. Was money scarce? Why? How was freight carried? 

THIRD EPOCH 

119, 120. Describe two standing quarrels between the colonies and the British offi- 
cers. Two direct causes of the Revolution. What were Writs of Assistance? The 
Stamp Act? Tell the story of James Otis. Of Patrick Henry. 

121-123. What efforts were made to resist the law ? What effect did they have ? What 
taxes were next laid ? What was the Mutiny Act ? Why was it passed ? What resistance 
to the new taxes was made by the colonists ? Tell about the Boston Massacre. The 
Boston Tea Party. Why was the tea thrown overboard 1 What did the British now do? 

124, 125. What parties were formed? What action did the colonists take? When 
and where was the First Continent.al Congress held? What action did it take? When 
and where did the flLrst lighting occur ? Describe the battles and their effects. Tell 
something of " Old Put.' ' 



xxxiv QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

126, 127. Tell how the battle of Bunker Hill occurred. Describe it. Effect. De- 
scribe the death of General Warren. Give some account of Etliau Allen. Why were 
the New Hampshire Grants so called 1 

128, )29. Describe the capture of Tlconderoga. Action of Second Continental Con- 
gress. What were the Hessians 1 What was the condition of the army I What expe- 
dition was undertaken against Canada f Describe the atta<k upon Quobtc. 

130. How were the British forced to leave Boston ? How had they treated the 
Boston people ? Describe the attack on Fort Moultrie. Its effect. Tell the story of 
Sergeant Jasi)er. 

131. When was the Declaration of Independence adopted f How many colonies 
voted for it 1 What was the " liberty bell " 1 

133-130. How did the campaign near New York occur ? Describe the battle of Long 
Island. How did the Americans escape? What were the prison ships I Tell the story 
of Nathan Hale. What battles occurnul while Washington was falling back? De- 
scribe his retreat through New Jersey. Tell the story of Robert Morris. What was 
the condition of the army 1 Describe the battle of Trenton. Of Princeton. EflTectof 
each. Tell the story of Rahl. Name the battles of 1775 and 177G iu order. 

137. How did the battle of Brandy wine occur? What decided it in favor of the 
British? What previous battle did it resemble? Give some account of Lafayette. 
Describe the battle of Gcrmantown. WTiy did the Americans fail? 

138-142. How did the campaign in Pennsylvania close? What attempt was made 
by the British in the North ? Name the battles of this campaign. How was Bur- 
goyuo'8 invasion checked? How was the siege of Fort Schuyler (Stanwix) raised? 
Describe the battle of Beuuington. For what incident is it noted ? Discribe the first 
battle of Saratoga. The second battle. Who was the hero of the tight? Tell some- 
thing of Kosciusko. Of Prescott and Lee. Of Reed. Tell some incidents of the cam- 
paign. Results of the campaign. 

143-146. Describe the winter in Valley Forge. The Conway cabal. What news 
came iu the spring? Tell the history of Beiijaiiiin Franklin. What caused the battle 
of Monmouth to hai)pen? Describe the battle. The treason of General Lee. What 
campaign was now planned by the aid of the P^ieueh? How did it turn out? Tell 
about the Wyoming settlement. Describe the Wyoming massacre. Name the battles 
of 1777 and 1778 in order. 

147-149. What success ilid the British have in the South ? Describe the attack on 
Savannah. Who were killed ? Tell something of Count Pulaski. \Miat characterized 
the campaign in the North 1 Tell the story of General Putnam. Describe the capture 
of Stony Point. General Sullivan's expedition. Clark's conquest of the W^est. The 
naval successes. The famous victory of Paul Jones. 

150-153. ^Vhat city was captured in 1780? What result followed? Describe the 
battle of Camden. Tell something of the famous partisan warfare. Some leaders. 
Effect. Battle of Kings Mountain. Tell something of the depreciation of the Conti- 
nental money. 

154-1.56. What mutiny occurred ? Tell the story of Arnold's treason. Of Andre's 
capture and fate. Of Aruold's escape and reward. In what cstiTnation was ho held? 
What was the condition of the army in the South in 1781? WTio now took oommandl 
Describe the battle of Cowpens. Tell an anecdote of Tarleton. 

157. Describe Greene's celebrated retreat. ITow many times did the rain save himi 
niustrate the patriotism of the women. By what two bnttles was the contest in the 
South closed? WTio were victorious? DeHcribc I lie character of General Greene. 

158, 169. What did Corn wallis do after the failiu-e of his Southern campaign ? Why 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxv 

did he retire to Yorkto wn 1 Wliat plan did Washington now adopt ? Describe the siege 
of Yorktown. The surrender. The effect. On what plundering tours did Arnold go 1 
Story told of Nelson ? Name the princii>al battles of 1779-1781 in order. 

160-163. Was all peril to our liberties now over 1 What was the condition of the 
country ? What base offer was made to Washington ? When was the treaty of peace 
signed? What were the results 1 Which States claimed lands west of the Appalachi- 
ans? Why? Whatwasflnallydone with the land north of the Ohio River? Tell some- 
thing of the weakness of the government. 

164. Describe Shays' s rebellion. AVTiat need was felt? How was it met? When 
was the Constitution framed ? TeU some of the compromises in its formation. What 
parties arose? How was the Constitution ratified? How many States were neces- 
sary ? Describe the first presidential election. 

165-167. When did the new government go into operation ? Into what three 
branches is it divided? Of what does each consist? Tell about the State constitu- 
tions. Local government. 

FOURTH EPOCH 

169-174. Who was the first President of the United States ? When and where was 
he inaugurated ? Give some account of his life and character. What difficulties beset 
the government? Of whom did the first cabinet consist? What financial measures 
were adopted? By whose advice? Name the changes in the national capital. A 
great invention made at this time. Give an account of the whisky rebellion. Of the 
Indian war in the Northwest. How many States in the Union at the end of Washing- 
ton's administration ? What difficulty arose with Great Britain ? How was it settled t 
How was the treaty received in tliis country? What treaty was made with Spain? 
Algiers 1 What was the popular feeling toward Franco ? Why was Genet recalled ? 
What parties now arose ? Who were the leaders of each ? What were their views ? 

175, 176. Who was elected second President ? Vice President 1 Why ? Tell some- 
thing of Adams's life. ^Tiat were the Alien and Sedition Laws? Why were they 
passed ? How were they received ? Describe the French difficulty during this admin- 
istration. How was it terminated ? AVhat reply did Pinckney make to the base offer 
of the French Directory? What was the state of party feeling? Who was elected 
President in 1800? How? What was the important event of Jefferson's administrar 
tion? Tell something of Jefferson's life and character. 

178-183. How was the Louisiana purchase made ? Describe the Lewis and Clark 
expedition. The Twelfth Amendment. Tell how Hamilton was killed. What became 
of Burr ? Tell something of Fulton's invention. Of the war with Tripoli. Of Lieu- 
tenant Decatur's exploit. Of tbo difficulty with Great Britain and France. AVhat was 
the Embargo Act ? (The enemies of this law, spelling the name backward, termed it 
the O grab me Act.) What was the issue of the next political campaign ? Who was 
elected President in 1808 ? Give an account of Madison's life and character. 

184. Give an account of the battle of Tippecanoe. Effect of this Indian war. State 
how the breach with Great Britain widened. Tell about the President and Little Belt. 
When was war declared 1 

185-187. How long did the war last? What was the opening event of the war of 
1812? Describe the surrender of Detroit. The battle of Qucenstown Heights. The 
victory of the Constitution, Of the Wasih How many prizes were captured by priva- 
teers? What are privateers? Effect of these victories? Plan of the campaign of 
the year 1813? 



xxxvl QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

188-191. What did tho, armios of tho CVnIer and North do in 1R13 1 Describe the three 
attacks made by Proctor. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. What issues depended on 
this light ? Describe the battle of tho Thames. What celebrated Indian was killed 1 
WTiat was tho effect of these victories? Describe tho capture of the CItcsapeake. 
What were Lawrence's dying words? Who used them in battle? What Indian diffi- 
culties occurred I Who (uided them ? How ? What story is told of Jackson ? What 
ravages were committed by Admiral Cockburn ? Why was New England spared ? 

192, 193. Ciive an account of the campaign of 181-1 near Niagara Kiver. Who were 
the American leaders? What story is told of Colonel Miller? What important battle 
took place in New York Htate ? Describe it. Describe the ravages on the Atlantic 
coast. Attack on Washington. On Baltimore. Ileeult of these events. What was the 
Hartford Convention ? 

194, 195. Why was tho battle of New Orleans unnecessary? Describe this battle. 
How did it happen that raw militia defeated British veterans { What were the results 
of this war? Effect upon new States? Effect upon the Federal party? Who was 
elected President in 1816? What small war was fought in 1815? What can you say of 
the national bank (Bank of the United Stat(>s) ? 

196-200. Give some account of Monroci's life and character. What was the charac- 
teristic of his admiuistriition? Give the history of the United .States flag. What was 
the Missouri Compromise? Cause of it ? How many slavt^ Htates and how many free 
States were there in 1822? Give an account of Lafayette's visit. IIow were our 
boundaries changed by treaties? What famous doctrine was advanced by Monroe? 
Why? 

201. Describe the election of 1824. Restdt? What political changes now took 
place? Principles of each party? Champions of each party ? Which party absorbed 
most of the old Federalists? (Jive some account of the life and character of John 
Quincy Adams. Of his administration. 

202,203. How was the protective tariff received? What new means of travel and 
transportation were now introduced? Significance? Who was elected President in 
1828 ? Describe the life and character of Jackson. 

205-208. What principle did Jackson introduce? What was the nullification ordi- 
nance? How did Jackson act? How did Clay pacify ? What celebrated debate took 
place? What is said of Calhoun? Of Clay's patriotism? ^Miat action did Jackson 
take concerning the United States bank J Its effect? How did speculation become 
rife ? What can you say of the Antimasonic party ? What policy was adopted toward 
the Indians of the middle West? Give an account of the Black Hawk Avar. The 
Seminole war. Osceola. How many now States were admitted I What difficulty 
occurred with France? How was it settled? Who was elected President in 1836? 
Give an account of his life. 

209, 210. Describe the crisis of 1837. What was its effect on trade ? What was Van 
Buren's Subtreasury Bill? Tell the story of the steamer Caroline. TVlio was elected 
President iu 1840 ? Who was his opponent ? Give an account of the life and character 
of Harrison. What was the cause of his sudden death ? 

211-214. Who was the next President? What trouble with his party? What of the 
United States bank? Give an account of Dorr's rebellion. Of the anti-rent difficulties. 
Of the inventi(m of tho magnetic telegraph. Of the Mormcms. Of tho origin and 
eariy history of this sect. How many States in the Union at the close of this term { 
Give an account of the northeast boundary question. Of the annexation of Texas. 
Why was this meastire warmly opposed ? Who wore the presidential candidates in 
1844 ? Give an account of Clay. Who was elected I 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxvii 

215-222. Give an account of the life of Polk. What war now broke out 1 How long 
did it last ? Give an account of Taylor's campaign on the Rio Grande. The capture 
of Monterey. The battle of Buena Vista. What stories are told of Taylor^ Give an 
account of Kearny's expedition. Of Doniphan's. Describe the conquest of California. 
The capture of Vera Cruz. The battle of Cerro Gordo. What city now surrendered { 
Describe the battles before Mexico. The result. The terms of peace. How was the 
northwest boundary settled 'i What waa the Wilmot proviso ? Give an account of the 
discovery of gold in California. Result. How many States at the end of this term 1 
Name the slave States. The free«8tates. Tell about the parties and candidates in the 
election of 1848. Who was elected President 1 

223-225. Give an account of Taylor's life and character. How long was he Presi- 
dent ? Who succeeded him 1 What questions agitated the people? Why were these 
now awakened? What was the effect ? What course did Clay take ? Webster? Give 
some account of Webster. What was the Compromise of 1850 ? Describe each meas- 
ure included in it. Give an account of the filibusters of 1851. Of the political parties 
in 1852. Who was elected President ? Give an account of the life of Pierce. Of the 
Kansas-Nebraska biU. 'SVTiat is squatter sovereignty ? Tell how the public lands have 
threatened the peace of the country. 

228, 229. Describe the contest in Kansas. Brooks's assault on Sumner. The Gads- 
den purchase. The treaty with Japan. What political parties now arose? Why ? 

230-235. Who was elected President in 1856 ? Give some account of Buchanan's life. 
Of the Dred Scott decision. How was this regarded in the North and in the South ? 
Why was the Fugitive Slave Law obnoxious? What were Personal Liberty bills? 
The Underground Railroad ? Uncle Tom's Cabin ? Give an account of the John Brown 
aflFair. How many slave States and how many free States at the end of this term ? 
What was the question of the elections in 1860 ? Who were nominated for the presi- 
dency? Who was elected? Give an account of the secession of the South. When 
and where was the Confederate government formed ? Who were elected President 
and Vice President of it ? Give some account of Davis's life. What action was taken 
by the Soutli ? What was the condition of the country ? Give an account of the grad- 
ual growth of the secession movement. Was war necessary ? What was the condition 
of affairs at Fort Sumter? For what did the nation wait? 

236-243. Tell about the obliteration of rank in this epoch. The improvement in the 
condition of laborers. Of debtors. Of schools. How did the Revolution affect our 
industries ? The war of 1812 ? Mention some inventions of this time. Why did immi- 
grants come here ? What changes took place in agriculture ? Mining ? Manufactur- 
ing? Transportation? Commerce? 

No questions are given upon the new States admitted to the Union during this 
epoch, as each class will naturally study chiefly that which concerns its own State, 
and will wish to add to the facts given here those obtained from other sources. 

FIFTH EPOCH 

249-267. Give an account of Lincoln's life and character. Of the condition of the 
country. When was the first gun of the Civil War fired ? Give an account of the cap- 
ture of Fort Sumter. Effects ? What action did the North take ? The South ? When 
and where was the first blood shed? How .did the war in Virginia open? How was 
Fort Monroe protected from capture ? Give an account of the Big Bethel affair. Of 
the war in western Virginia. How and when did the battle of Bull Run take place? 
Describe it. How did Jackson receive the name of " Stonewall " ? What decided the 



xxxviii QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

lasue of the battle ? Effect ? Who now took command of the Union troops t Describe 
the battle at Balls Bluff. 

258-200. Give an account of the war in Missouri. What was the condition of affairs 
in the border States i What step did Davis take f Linc<dn i What naval expeditions 
were made I Describe tlio Treril affair. Give a general review of the lirst year of the 
war. Describe tlie prescrvaticm of Fort Pickens. What was the plan of the campaigu 
for 1862 { The situation in the West I 

261-206. ^\'he^e was tlie first attack made in the West ? Describe the capture of Fort 
Henry. Of Fort Douelson. What message did Gratit send I What was the effect of 
these victories ! What was the next movement? Describe the battle of I'ea Kidge. 
Of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing. How was Corinth captured { Describe the taking of 
Island No. 10. Effects of this campaign i What line was now held by the Union army ? 
Describe Bragg's expedition. Was it successful I Describe the battles of luka and 
Corinth. Of Murfreesboro. Effect ? AVTiat was Grant's plan for an expedition against 
Vicksburg i Was it successful ( Wbat eVent closed this Mississippi campaigu 1 De- 
scribe the capture of New Orleans by Farragut. 

267-270. Describe Bumside's expedition against Roanoke Island. What was the 
importance of Roanoke Island >. What else was accomplishiul on the coast? Describe 
the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac. ^\'hat was the result { What was 
the objective point in the East! ^V^lat campaign was undertaken? AATio was the 
commanding general ? 

271-275. Describe the siege of Yorktown. The battle of Williamsburg. What 
became of the Merrimac 1 How did the Confederates thwart General McClellan's 
plan? Give an account of Jackson in the Shenandoah valley. What was the effect of 
this movement? What story is told of Jackson? Describe the battle of Fair Oaks. 
Who now took direct command of the Confederate army ? Give some account of I>ee. 
How was tlio Union advance on Richmond checked ? What plan did McClellan form f 
Describe the Seven Dayts' battles and the retreat. What was the effect of this cam- 
paign { 

276-279. ^yhy «.id Leo now march north ? Who had command of the Union army 
before Washington ? Describe Leo's campaign against Pope. Effect? Wliat plan did 
Lee now adopt? Describe McClellan's movements in pursuit. On what expedition 
was Jackson sent ? Describe the battle of Antietam. Its effect. The liattle of Fred- 
ericksburg. Give a review of the second year of the war. Wliat Indian conllict 
occurred in tho West? ^\"hat was the situation at the beginning of the year 1803? 
What was tho Emancipation Proclamation? 

280-284. What nioveiiiout did Grant make against Vicksburg? Describe this cam- 
paign. What other stronglioM on the river was captured? Effect? Describe tho 
movements of Rosecrans in Tennessee and Georgia. General Morgan's raid. The 
battle of Chickamauga. By what event can you recollect it? Describe the situatiou 
at Chattanooga. The battle of lyookcmt Mountain. Of Missionary Ridge. Its effect 
The siege of Knoxvillo. 

285-289. Describe the battle of Chancellorsvillo. Lee's second invasion of the 
North. The battle of Gettysburg. Its effect. The attack on Fort Sumter. What can 
you say concerning the negro troops? Give a general review of the third year of tho 
war. 

290-294. State tho situation at the beginning of the year 1864. Tell about the Re<l 
River expedition. The capture of Fort Pillow. What was Grant's plan? Tell some- 
thing of Sherman and Johnston. Describe Johnston's plan of defense. How did 
Sherman drive him back ? Name the battles that occurred. Who succeeded Johnston 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxix 

In oomniaiidl What followed ? How did Sherman capture Atlanta 1 What waa the 
eflfect ? What did Hood now do ? Sherman 1 Describe the battle of Nashville. What 
was the effect S Describe Sherman's march to the sea. What was the effect? 

295-299. Describe the battle of the Wilderness. By what peculiarity was it distin- 
guished? What was the result 1 What battle followed ? Describe it. What was the 
next battle 1 Describe it. What famous dlspatcli did Grant send ? What was Grant's 
next movement ? What was the effect of this campaign 1 Describe tlie three coopera- 
tive expeditions. The mine explosion. The attack on the Weldon railroad. Why did 
Lee send Early into the Shenandoah valley ? Describe Early's raid. What Union gen- 
eral was now sent to this region 'I Describe Sheridan's campaign. His devastation of 
the country. His ride from Winchester. What was the effect of his campaign? What 
can you say of the effectiveness of the blockade { Of the blockade runners ? 

300-303. Give an account of the Confederate cruisers. Of the battle between the 
Alabama and the Kearsarge. The expedition against Mobile Bay. The expeditions 
against Fort Fisher. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. Political affairs. Who 
was elected President ? Give a review of the fourth year of the war. 

304-309. Describe the situation at the opening of the year 1865. Describe Sherman's 
march through the Carolinas. What was the result 1 What was the situation at Rich- 
mond % Describe the attack on Fort Stedman. Why was it made ? Describe the battle 
of Five Forks. The capture of Petersburg and Richmond. The pursuit of Lee. Terms 
of the surrender. Effect ? What was the fate of Davis 1 Results of the war '\ The 
cost of the war 1 Tell about the assassination of Lincoln. What States were added 
during this epoch ? How many were then in the Union % 

SIXTH EPOCH 

311-316. What can yoa say of the nation's progress in this epoch \ What problems 
did it face \ Who became President on the death of Lincoln ? Give an account of his 
life. What was done with the army ? What is the Grand Army of the Republic \ 
What do you mean by " reconstruction " l What was the reconstruction policy of John- 
son? What is the Thirteenth Amendment ? What was the reconstruction policy of 
Congress ? How were the seceded States finally readmitted to their former positions 
in the Union? Why was Johnson impeached? What was the result? What is the 
Fourteenth Amendment? Effect? Give an account of the French interference in 
Mexico. How did it end ? Tell about the laying of the Atlantic cable. WTiat new ter- 
ritory was added to the United States ? How ? 

317-323. Who were the presidential candidates in 1868? Who was elected? Give 
an account of his life. Of the Pacific railroads and their value to the coimtry. What 
is the Fifteenth Amendment? What great fires happened in 1871 and 1872? What 
trouble occurred the next year? What two Indian wars were fought in this adminis- 
tration? Describe each. Describe the Centennial Exhibition. How many States in 
1876 ? What difHculties with Great Britain, and how were they settled ! Describe the 
election of 1872. Give some account of Greeley. Who were nominated for the presi- 
dency in 1876 ? What questions were before the country ? 

324, 325. What was the Joint Electoral Commission ? Who was elected ? What 
was the Southern policy of President Hayes ? Describe the railroad strike of 1877. 
Significance ? What was the Bland Silver Bill ? What is " free coinage " ? When was 
specie payment of greenbacks resumed ? Who were the presidential candidates in 
1880 ? Who was elected ? 

326, 327. Describe the life and death of Garfield. Name the important events of 



xl QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

President Aitliiir's adiiiinistratiou. What was the difticiilty in excluding thr' Chinese ? 
What is meant by " civil service reform" { 

328-330. Who were liie presidential nominees in 1884 ; Wlio was elected '. Siirnili- 
cano«? What were the princiiial events in the Hist administration of President 
rieveland ; Wliat two acts liad tn do with the inesideney { Deserilje them. What is 
the lnter.stato Commerce Conimi.ssion ( Wliat <|McHtion was prominent in tlie election 
of 1888 { Wlio were the candidates ; Who was elected ; 

331-333. What were the principal events in President Harrison's administration! 
Tell about the Pan-American Congress. Hallol nlorni. How many .States were there 
in 1892 '. Descril)e the presidential election of that year. Who was elected ; 

33C-33S. What was the Columbian Exposition ! Tell .something al)out it. Wliat 
did Congress do about silver in 1833 '. Why >. Wliat laws were i)assed the next year >. 
Describe three other important events of Cleveland's second administration. What 
can you tell of the Hawaiian Islands ; Describe the election of 18%. What was the 
iosue } Who was elected President f 

339-346. Tell sometliing of his life. What was done by the extra session of Congress 
in 1897 ? What was th(! effect of the Gohl (Standard Act of 1900 I What was th(,' Galves- 
ton disaster; What were the causes of the war with Spain; When did it begin { 
What were the chief naval battles, and the result of each ; The chief operations on 
land >. What were the results of the war >. 

347-353. What islands and island groups were acguired by the United States in 
1898, 1899. and 1900 ; Give a brief history of each. What was done with Cviba » What 
was done in Cliiua in 1900 ; Describe the election of 19(Mt. The death of McKiidey. 

3.53-367. Mention some of the reasons for the great industrial development of the 
United States. What is a trust ; A trade union ; Mention some details of the devel- 
opment of agriculture. Herding. Lnnil)ering. Mining. Manufactures. WHiat great 
change took place in the South ; Mention some details in the development of trans- 
portation. Commerce. Menti<m the different steps in the territorial development of 
the country. What can you say of the growth in poi)ulation ? Give a brief account of 
the development of the iiost oflice. Education. Litiratnre. What was the Federalist I 

309-3T4. Mention the chief events of Roosevelt's administration. How did the 
United States corao to dig the Panama Canal? What is tlie Dopartment of Com- 
merce and Labor? What disuster befell San Francisco? What important laws were 
passed in 1900? AVho was elected President in 19n,s? 

ST.VSTT. Tell .something of his life. What amendments were proposed during 
Taft's administration? Mention otlier important events of this time. Who was 
elected President in 1912 ? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS 

1. What general rushed into battle without order-s and won it ? 

2. What battles have resulted in the destruction or surrender of an entire army? 

3. What trees are celebrated in our history ? 

4. How many boundary disputes has the United States had 'I 

5. In what battle did Washington bitterly rebuke the commanding general, and him- 

self rally the troops to battle 1 

6. What three ex-Presidents died on the 4th of July ? 

7. What cities have undergone a siege 1 

8. Contrast the characters of Washington and Jefferson. 

9. By whom, and on what occasion, were the words used, " Millions for defense, but 

not one cent for tribute " ? 

10. Give the coincidences in the lives of the three great statesmen— Webster, Clay, 

and Calhoun. 

11. How did a half-witted boy once save a fort from capture i 

12. Name the retreats famous in our history. 

13. When did a fog save our army? 

14. When did a stone house largely decide a battle 1 A stone wall 1 

15. What general was captured through his carelessness, and exchanged for another 

taken in a similar way ? 

16. What battles have been decided by an attack in the rear 1 

17. Who said, " I would rather be right than President " 'I 

18. Who would have succeeded Millard Fillmore as President if he had died in oflScel 

Andrew Johnson 'I Theodore Roosevelt ? 

19. Name the events in our history which seem to you providential. 

20. What general died at the momei^t of victory ? 

21. Name some defeats which had all the effect of victories. 

22. Of what general was this said to bo always true ? 

23. When was the Mississippi River the western boundary of the United States'? 

24. What territory has the United States acquired by purchase ? By conquest ? By 

annexation? 

25. What Vice Presidents were afterwards elected Presidents? 

26. What navigator greatly shortened the voyage across the Atlantic 1 

27. What tea party is celebrated in our history ? 

28. How many attacks have been made on Quebec ? 

29. In what way did Washington travel from Philadelphia to Boston? 

30. Why were the river St. Lawrence, Florida, St. Augustine, etc., so named? 

31. What naval commander captured his antagonist as his own vessel was sinking ? 

32. How many expeditions have been made into Canada ? 

33. What do the French names in the Mississippi valley indicate ? 

34. What do the names New York, New England, New Hampshire, Georgia, Carolina, 

etc., indicate? 

35. What Presidents were assassinated 1 What other cues died in o£Bce 1 

xU 



xlii HISTORICAL RECREATIONS 

30. When has the question of the public lands threateni'd the Union ? 

37. Who, in a frail lanoo, on a stonuy night, visited au Indian wigwam to save the 

lives of his enemies I 

38. How many times has Fort Tjcouderoga been captured? 

39. Wliy wore Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Hudson Kiver, etc., so named? 

40. What do till' names San Salvador, Santa Cruz, Trinidad, etc., indicate? 

41. In what battles had the opposing generals formed the same plan >. 

42. What father and son were Presidents >. What grandfather and grandson 1 

43. Who fired the first gun in the French and Indian War? 

44. How nianj' rebellions have occurred in our liistory ? 

45. Who was called the " Great Pacificator " >. Why ? 
•16. What was nulliflcation? 

47. How juany of our Presidents have been military men ? 

48. Why did not Wel)ster and Clay become Presidents? 

49. Who was " Old Kougli and Ready " ? The " Sage of Monticello " ? 

50. WTiat noted events occurred on April 19? 

51. In which administration was the largest number of States admitted? 

52. In wliich administrations was none admitted? 

53. By whom and under what circumstances was the expression used, "Give me 

liberty or give me death " ? 

54. Give some familiar names that have been applied to American statesmen, 

55. Name our six great wars. How long did each last? 

56. State the cause of each of these wars. The results of each. 

57. Name the prominent commanders who acquired celebrity in each. 

58. What fort was caiTied by a midnight assault? 

59. What general escaped Ijy riding down a steep precipice? 

60. Who drafted the Declaration of Independence? 
01. Name the Presidents in chronological order. 

62. Who were the "bachelor Presidents" i 

63. State to what party each President belonged. 

64. How many of our Presidents were poor boys? 

65. What party adopted the views of the t)ld Federalists on the United States Bank? 
6C. How many Presidents have served two terms? 

07. What battles were fought after peace had been declared ? 

68. Contrast John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. 

69. What is tlie object of a strilce ? Of a lockout ? Describe several noted strikes. 

70. Wliat arc tlie injuries that may be caused by strikes? The possible beueflts? 

71. On what mountains have battles been fought I 

72. \\Tio used tlie expression, " We have met tlie enemy, and they are ours" ? 

73. Who.sc dying words were, " Don't give up the ship" ? 

74. When was a general blown ui>by a magazine, at the moment of victory? 

75. What Indian chiefs formed leagues against the whites { 
70. What celebrated statesman was killed in a duel ! 

77. What States were named from mountain ranges ? From rivers? 

78. Was Washington ever wounded in battle ? 

79. Wlien wer(! postage stamps invented ? 

80. In wliat battle did Washington show the most brilliant generalship? 

81. What ofTicer lost his life because he neglected to open a note? 

82. What army retreated at the moment of victory because the fog was so dense that 

it did not see how successful it was? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS xUii 

83. Name some celebrated foreigners who have fought for us. 

84. What rendered Valley Forge memorable { 

85. How did William Henry Harrison gain his popularity i Zachary Taylor ? 

86. Give some account of the United States Bank. 

87. In what war was Lincoln a captain and Davis a lieutenant ? 

88. What colonel, when asked if he could take a battery, replied, "I'll try, sir"? 

89. What town and army were surrendered without firing a shot ? 

90. For how many years was the Revolutionary War carried on mainly in the North? 

In the South ? 

91. Who was Poor Richard ? 

92. Who were the Green Mountain Boys? 

93. WTiat colony was founded as a home for the poor ? 

94. What persecuted people settled the different colonies? 

95. What colonies are named after a king or a queen ? 

96. What religious toleration was granted in the different colonies? 

97. Which colonies early enjoyed the greatest liberty? 

98. What colony took the Bible as its guide ? 

99. In what Ijattle was the left wing, when separated from the main body by a river, 

attacked by an overwhelming force of the enemy ? 

100. In what battle did both generals mass their strength on the left wing, expecting to 

crush the enemy's right ? 

101. How many invasions of the North did Lee make ? 

102. What victories induced him to attempt each of these invasions ? 

103. By what battle was each invasion checked ? 

104. For how many years has the United States been involved in war ? 

105. What object did Penn, Lord Baltimore, and Oglethorpe each have in founding a 

colony in the New World ? 

106. What President was impeached ? 

107. What ex- Vice President was tried for treason ? 

108. What President vetoed the measures of the party that elected him ? 

109. Of what statesman was it said that " he was in the public service fifty years, anc 

never attempted to deceive his countrymen " ? 

110. From what States have Presidents been elected ? 

111. Give the number and names from each State. 

112. What battle did General Gates win ? What battle did he lose? 

113. What battles did Washington win ? What battles did he lose ? 

114. What President-elect came to Washington secretly? 

115. Give a brief history of the slavery question. 

116. Wben were negro slaves introduced into this country ? 

117. Name the generals who commanded the Army of the Potomac. 

118. Name the principal battles fought by McClellan, Rosecrans, Bragg, Lee, Hooker, 

Sheridan, Grant, Sherman, Beauregard, Meade, Pope, Taj^lor, Scott, Thomas. 

119. Describe the " March to the Sea." 

120. What two battles were fought in the " Wilderness " ? 

121. What was the Missouri Compromise ? The Compromise of 1850 ? 

122. What is " squatter sovereignty" ? Who was its author ! 

123. Of whom was it said that " he touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it 

sprang upon its feet " ? 

124. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws ? 

125. Wlio was the Old Man Eloquent ? 



xHv HISTORICAL RECREATIONS 

126. When was the flret railroad constructed ? The first successful steamboat >. The 

first magnetic telegraph i The first sewing machine I ' 

127. When was the Erie Canal opened'? The first Pacific Railroad f 

128. What President introduced " rotation in oflBce " ? 

129. Why, in the Missouri Compromise, was 36^ ao* taken as the boundary between 

slave and free territory 1 

130. What is the Monroe Doctrine ? 

131. Who was the inventor of the cotton gin ? 

132. AVhat is a protective tariff? 

133. ^\^lat is free coinage 1 

134. To what party did Henry Clay belong ? J. Q. Adams 1 Thomas JeflFerson ? John 

C. Calhoun ? Andrew Jackson I Daniel Webster f btephcn A. Douglas I 
Alexander Hamilton i George Washington ? 

135. Wliat President had not voted for forty years I 

136. What two distinguished generals of the same name served in the Confederate 

Army ? Name the battles fought by each. 

137. What was the Dred Scott decision ? 

138. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Bill '. 

139. Give an account of the principal iiarties which have arisen since the Constitu- 

tional Convention of 1787. 

140. Who were the Silver Grays? The Hunkers? The Barn-burners! The Woolly- 

heads? The Locofocos? The Free-soilers ? The Know-nothings? The Anti- 
renters? The Unionists ? The Stalwarts . The Mugwumps ? 

141. Give an account of the difVerent attempts to lay the first Atlantic cable. 

142. Give a history of the ditticulty b(>tween President Johnson and Congress. 

143. WTiat nations settled the difl"eieut States? 

144. How many amendments have been made to the Constitution 1 

145. What was the Hartford Convention ? 

146. What is meant by " State rights " ? 

147. What was the Secretary of State formerly called? 

148. Tell some stories illustrating the patriotism of the women of the Revolution. 

149. Give an account of the public lands. 

150. What State was admitted to the Union first aiter the original thirteen ? 

151. Who are the Mormons ? 

152. For what is Ethan Allen noted '. 

163. What battles have been fought in Virf^inia ; South Carolina '. Louisiiinii ? New 
York? Massachusetts? New Jersey? Maryland? Pennsylvania J Georgia? 
Michigan ? Tennessee ? 

154. What was the Fugitive Slave Law? 

155. For what is John Brown noted ? 

156. Give an account of Farragut's most celebrated exploit. 

157. Why was "Stonewall " .fackson so called >. 

158. What was the chief (!vent of Jeffi-rson's administration? Jackson's? Monroe's? 

159. What treaties are c(^lebrated in our history >. 

160. What President was t)nce a tailor's ai)pr('ntice ? 

161. What was the olvjocf of the " American iiarty " ? 

162. Wliat was the Gadsden luuchase? 

163. Name the various didiculties Avhicli liave arisen with (ireat Britain. 

164. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 

166. Who was President in 1812, 1832, 1846, 1850, I860, 1879, 1898? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS xlv 

166. Describe the operations of the Confederate cruisers during the CivU War. Of the 

blockade runners, 

167. What distinguished generals have been unsuccessful candidates for the Presi- 

dency 1 Successful candidates 1 

168. AVhy did the French in Canada extend tbeir explorations westward to the Missis- 

sippi rather than southward into New York ? 

169. What was the Trent affair ? 

170. Name and describe some important naval engagements. 

171. In what battle did the defeated general leave his wooden leg? 

172. ^Yha,t was the " O grab me Act " 1 

173. Who first used the expression, " To the victors belong the spoils" 1 
.''i. What is " Civil Service Reform " 1 

i7o, What right did the Euglish and Spanish have to occupy this continent? 

176. Why is this country English rather than French i 

177. What are " patroon estates " 1 

178. What vvas the difference between the Pilgrims and the other Puritans 1 

179. Has a State any right to coin money i 

180. Ought Andre to have been executed 1 

181. What President in bis inaugural called attention to the fact that he was the first 

President born after the Revolution '! 

182. Wbo is the author of the Thirhj Years' View I 

183. What portion of the United States favored the annexation of Texas? 

184. Who first used the expression, "A government of the people, by the people, and 

for the people " 1 

185. What was the town meeting of the early New England times ? 

186. ^V^lich Presidents were chosen by the House of Representatives ? 

187. Which Presidents were college graduates 1 

188. How many States voted for Washington the first time as President? 

189. What cfi"ect did the invention of the cotton gin ba\'e on slavery i 

190. What four Italians were prominent in American discoveries I 

191. Wbat was the Society of the Cincinnati? 

192. What was the State of Franklin ? 

193. What war was waging in Europe during our King William's War? Dirring the 

French and Indian War? 

194. Why did the Iroquois generally favor the English rather than the French? 

195. How did the English treatment of the Indians compare with the French? 

196. For how many years was New York the capital of the United States ? 

197. What was the object of the Electoral College ? 

198. How were the early Presidents nominated for office ? 

199. What constitutes citizenship in the United States ? 

200. Why was not Washington inaugurated until April 30? 

201. What is the longest period during which any one party has remained in power in 

the United States ? 

202. AVhat was the meaning of the campaign cry " Fifty-four forty, or fight " ? 

203. What was the " Western Reserve " ? 

204. Which State has supplied the greatest number of Vice Presidents? 

'i05. Have the President and the Vice President always lielouged (o the same party ? 

206. How could one elector have made Burr President instead of Jeflferson '. 

207. In what other case could one man have changed the result of a presidential 

election 1 



xlvi 



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INDEX 



Abercrombie, Gen. James, 97. 
Acadia, granted to De Monts, 36. 

Great Britain acquires, 88. 

struggle fur, 93, 95. 
Adams, Joliii, in Revolutionary period, 
122, 123. 

leader Federal party, 174. 

political writer, 365, 366. 

President, 175, 17G. 

Vice President, 165. 
Adams, .John Qulney, President, 201-203. 
Adams, Samuel, 122. 
Agricultural College, 365. 
Agriculture, 114, 115, 240, 355. 
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 350. 
Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 89. 
Alabavia, 300, 322. 
Alabama, 245, 232, 314. 
Alamo, tlie, 246. 
Alaska, 316, 3.56, 362, 371. 
Albany, 71, 93. 
Albemarle colony, 81, 83. 
Alexandria, seized, 255. 
Algiers, treaty with, 174. 

war witli, 195. 
Algonquian Indians, 12. 
Alien and Sedition Laws, 175, 176. 
Allen, Ethan, 127, 128. 
Amendments to Constitution, xxiv-xxTii. 

Twelfth, 180. 

Thirteenth, 313, 314. 

Fourteenth, 315. 

Fifteenth, 319. 
America, discovery of, 16, 24, 27. 

named, 27. 
American party, 229. 
"American System," 201. 
Ames, Fisher, 366. 
Amherst, Gen. Jeff cry, 96, 97, 99. 
Anarchists, 329, 353. 
Anderson, Maj. Robert, 234, 235, 251. 
Andri5, Maj. John, 154-1.5C. 
Andros, Sir Edmund, 65, 70, 74. 
Annapolis, Port Royal called, 88. 
Antietam, battle of, 277. 
Anti-Federalists, 164. 
\ntiniasonic party, 206. 
%>ti-renters. 212. 



120, 



Appomattox Court House, 307. 

Aquiday, island of, 70. 

Arizona, 356, 375. 

Arkansas, 245, 254, 313, 314. 

Arkansas Post, taken, 266. 

Arlington Heights, seized, 255. 

Army of the Potomac, 256, 257, 270-278, 280- 

286, 306. 
Arnold, Benedict, Fort Schuyler saved byj 
139. 

Quebec attacked by, 129. 

Saratoga victory, 141. 

Ticonderoga captured by, 128. 

treason of, 154-156. 

Virginia expedition, 158. 
Arthur, Chester A., President, ,S26. 

Vice President, 325. 
Articles of Confederation, 163. 
AshlHirtdii treaty, 213. 
Astor, John Jacob, 247. 
Astoria, Fort, 247. 
Astrolabe, 19. 

Atlanta, captured, 292, 293. 
Atlantic cable, laid, 316. 
Augusta, captured, 147. 
Austin, Moses, 246. 
Australian ballot system, 332. 
Averysboro, battle of, 304. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, 57. 
Baker, Col. E. D., 257. 
Balboa, Vasc(j Nunez de, 30. 
Ballot reform, 332. 
Balls Bluff, battle of, 257. 
Baltimore, attacked, 193. 
insurgents in, 254, 255. 
Baltimore, Lord, 79, 80. 
Bancroft, George, 367. 
Bank, national, or Bank of United States, 171 

174, 195, 206. 
Banks, national, 311, 339. 
Banks, .State, 195. 206, 207, 311. 
Banks, Gen. Nathaniel P., 272, 276, 281, 290. 
Rarbary pirates, 170, 181, 195. 
B.arton, Col. William, 141. 
" Battle above the clouds," 283. 
Baum, Colonel, 140. 
Beaureijard, 259. 



zlix 



1 



INDEX 



Beauregard, Gen. P. 0. T., at Bull Eun, 256. 

at Fort Sumter, 25L 

at Shiloh, 202, 263. 

opposes Butler, 296. 
Bee, Gen. Barnard E., 256. 
Beet sugar factories, 355. 
Bell, John, 232. 
Beniis Heights, battle of, 140. 
Bennington, battle of, 140. 
Benton, Thomas H., 225. 
Bentonville, battle of, 304. 
Berkeley, Lord, 75. 
Berkeley, Sir William, 57, 113. 
Bermuda Hundred, 296. 
Bidwell, John, 333. 
Bienville, Wloron de, 89. 
Bienville, Jean Baptiste Leuioine de, 39. 
Big Bethel, expedition against, 255. 
Big Black River, battle of, 280. 
Bill, how it becomes a law, 165, xvL 
Biloxi, founded, 39. 
Black Hawk War, 207, 245. 
Blaine, James G., 328. 
Bland Bill, 325. 
Blockade, of 1814, 193. 

of Havana, 344. 

Southern, 259, 260, 299. 
Blockade runners, 299-301. 
Bonhomme Richard, 149, 150. 
Boone, Daniel, 244. 
Boonesboro, 244. 
Booth, John Wilkes, 309. 
Border warfare in Kansas, 228. 
Boston, Are in, 320. 

founded, 62. 

in Revolutionary period, 122-124, 130. 
Boston Tea Party, 123. 
Boundary, Alaska, 352. 

Northeast, 213. 

Northwest, 221, 247, 322. 

of United States in 1783, 161, 360. 

Venezuelan, 338. 
Bowling Green, 260, 262. 
Braddock, Gen. Edward, 94. 
Bradford, William, 61. 
Bradstreet, Col. John, 97. 
Bragg, Gen. Braxton, at Chattanooga, 284,290. 

at Chickamauga, 281, 282. 

at Murfreesboro, 265, 266. 

Kentucky invaded by, 264. 
Brandywine, battle of, 137. 
Brazil, discovered, 27. 
Brazos Santiago, battle of, 308. 
Breckinridge, John C, 215, 232. 
Breeds Hill, liattle of, 126. 
British, are England. 
Brock, Gen. Isaac, 185. 
Brooklyn, 345. 
Brooks, Preston S., 228. 
Brown, Gen. Jacob, 192. 
Brown, John, 231. 
Brown University, fonnded, 113. 



Bryan, William J., 338, 353. 

Bryant, \Mlliam CuUen, 366. 

Buccaneers, 83. 

Buchanan, Commodore Franklin, 268. 

Buclianan, James, President, 230-235. 

Buckner, Gen. Simon B., 262, 338. 

Buell, Gen. Don Carlos, 262-264. 

Buena Vista, battle of, 216, 217. 

Bull Run, battles of, 250, 276. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 126, 127. 

Burgoyne, Gen. John, 138-142. 

Burlingame, Anson, 310, 327. 

Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., 267, 277, 278, 28J. 

Burr, Aaron, 176, 180, 181. 

Butler, Gen. Benjamin F., 255, 266, 267, 206. 

Butler, John, 146, 147. 

Cabinet, President's, 171, 328. 
Cable, Atlantic, 316. 
Cabot, John, 27, 28. 
Cabot, Sebastian, 28. 
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 28. 
Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, 33. 
Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothc, 246. 
Caldwell, Gen. John C, 278. 
Calhoun, John C, 201, 202, 205, 206. 
California, admitted, 223, 224, 246, 247. 

explored, 32, 33. 

gold in, 221, 222, 241, 247. 

petroleum wells in, 357. 
Calvert, Cecil, 79. 
Calvert, George, 79. 
Camden, battle of, 151. 
Canada, British possession of, 99. 

colonists attack, 87, 88. 

fisheries, 322. 

in Revolutionary War, 128, 129. 

in War of 1812, 185, 186, 195. 

rebellion in, 209. 
Canals, built, 202, 243. 
Cane sugar produced, 241. 
Canning factories, 355. 
Canonicus, 61, 63. 
Cape Breton Island, 34, 96. 
Cape Cod, 44. 
Cape of Good Hope,"21. 
Capital, Confederate, 255. 

national, 171. 
Capitol, the, 172. 
Car couplers, automatic, 354. 
Carnifex Ferry, battle of, 256. 
Carolina, Fort, 35, 36. 
Carolinas, 80-84, 103. 

gee North and South Carolina. 
Caroline, 210. 
Carpet-I>aggers, 315. 
Carson, Kit, 218. 
Carteret, Sir George, 75. 
Carteret colony, 81, 83. 
Cartier, Jacques, 34, 35. 
Cass, Lewis, 222. 
Cavaliers, 56. 



INDEX 



li 



Cayuga Indians, 12. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 299. 

Cedar Mountain, battle of, 276. 

C61oron de Bienville, 89. 

Cemetery Ridge, 286-288. 

Census, 362. 

Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, 321, 

322. 
Cerro Gordo, battle of, 219. 
Cervera, Admiral, 344, 345. 
Chads Ford, battle of, 137. 
Chambersburg, burned, 298. 
Champion Hills, battle of, 280. 
Champlain, Samuel de, 36, 37. 
Chancellorsville, battle of, 2S4, 285. 
Chantilly, battle of, 276. 
Chapultepec, battle of, 220. 
Charles!., 56. 
Charles II., 56, 65, 73. 
Charleston, earthquake in, 329. 

founded, 81. 

free school in, 114. 

French and Spanish fleet attacks, 88. 

in Civil War, 235, 288, 304. 

in Revolutionary period, 123, 150, 160. 
Charlestown, settled, 62. 

burned, 127. 
Charter, 45. 
Charter Oak, 70. 
Chattanooga, battle of, 282-284. 
Cherokee War, 95. 
Chesapeake, 182, 190. 
Chicago, anarchists in, 329. 

fire in, 319, 320. 

railroad strike in, 337. 

World's Columbian Exposition in, 333, 336. 
Chickamauga, battle of, 281, 282. 
Chickasaw Bluff, battle of, 266. 
Chickasaw Indians, 245. 
Chihuahua, conquered, 217. 
China, treaty with, 316, 317, 327. 

uprising against foreigners, 352. 
Chinese exclusion, 327, 333, 370. 
Chippewa, battle of, 192. 
Choctaw Indians, 245. 
Christian Commission, 302, 303. 
Churubusco, battle of, 219. 
Cities, growth of, 242, 354, 362. 
Citizens, American, 182, 315, 316. 

rights and duties of, 167. 
Civil Rights Bill, 314. 
Civil service reform, 323. 
Civil War, 249-308. 
Clarendon, Lord, 80. 
Clark, George Rogers, 148, 149. 
Clark, William, 178. 
Clay, Henry, career of, 214, 215. 

Compromise Bill, 206. 

Compromise of 1850, 223, 224. 

leader National Republicans, 201. 

Missouri Compromise supported by, 197. 
{Jlayborne's Rebellion, 79, 80. 



Clermont, 181. 

Cleveland, Grover, President, 328-330, 333- 

338. 
Clinton, De Witt, 202. 
Clinton, George, 112, 180, 364. 
Clinton, Sir Henry, 130, 133, 144, 146, 147, 150, 

158. 
Cockburn, Admiral George, 191-193. 
Coinage, free, 325. 

gold and silver, 325. 
Cold Harbor, battle of, 296. 
Coligny, Count, 35. 
Colleges, 113, 364, 365. 
Colonial Assembly, 53, 54, 103, 119 
Colonies, English, 46, 49-117. 

government of, 103, 104. 

industries in, 114-117. 

society in, 102-114. 

wars, intercolonial, 86-102. 
Colorado, 359, 322, 356. 
Columbia, S. C, captured, 304. 
Columbia College, 113, 364. 
Columbia River, explored, 247., 
Columbian Exposition, 333, 336. 
Columbus, Christopher, 21-26. 
Columbus, Ky., 260, 262. 
Commerce, before Civil War, 239, 243. 

during War of 1812, 193, 195. 

Eastern, 19, 20. 

Embargo Act, 183. 

in colonial times, 114, 116, 117. 

in 1900, 358, 359. 
Committees of safety, 126. 
Commonwealth, 56. 
Compass, mariner's, 19. 
Compiomise, Missouri, 196, 197, 228, 234. 

of 1850, 224, 225, 234. 
Compromise taiiff, 206. 
Concord, battle of, 124, 125. 
Condensing of milk, 356. 
Confederate cruisers, 300. 
Confederate privateers, 259. 
Confederate States, 232, 249, 2S4, 255. 
Congress, 268. 
Congress, First Continental, 124. 

Second Continental, 128. 
Congress, Pan-American, 331. 
Congress, Stamp Act, 121. 
Congress, United States, 164-167. 
Connecticut, cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. 

in colonial times, 63, 103, 110. 

settled, 67-70. 
Constantinople, captured, 20. 
Constitution, 186, 187. 

Constitution of United States, 164-167, 366, 
xiv-xxvii. 

amended, 180, 313-315, 319. 

interpretation of, 174. 
Constitutions, State, 166. 
Continental Congress, 124, 128. 
Continental currency, 153, 154. 
" Contraband," 255. 



Ui 



INDEX 



Contreras, battle of, 219. 
Convention, Jlrst party national, 20C. 
CJonway, Gen. Thomas, H3. 
Cool\, Capt. James, 32. 
Cooper, James Feiiiniore, 3C6. 
Cooper, Peter, 243. 
Copper mines, 241, S.IO. 
Copyrij;Iit, 333, "xviiL 
Corinth, liattle of, 205. 

Confederates in, 262, 2C3. 
Cornwallis, Lord, 134, 130, i:0, 151, 150-159. 
Coronado, Francisco Vasipiez de, 32, 33. 
Corporations, growth of, 312, 355. 
Cortes, Hernando, 29, 32. 
Cotton, production of, 116, 240, 241, 358. 
Cotton factories, 242. 
Cotton gin, 172, 196. 
Council for New England, 58, 60, 61., 
Courts, 106, 107. 
Cowpens, battle of, 156. 
Crawford, William H., 201. 
Creek Indi.ins, 191, 245. 
Crockett, David, 240. 
Croghan, Maj. Giorge, 188. 
Cross Keys, battle of, 272. 
Crown Point, 93, 90, 97, 128, 138. 
Cuba, attempt to annex, 224. 

republic of, 341, 340, 352. 

Spanish settle in, 29. 
Currency, 153, 154, 171, 195, 206, 207, 311, 325, 

336, 338, 339. 
Curtis, Gen. Samuel R., 262. 
Custer, Gen. George A., 320, 321. 
Customs and manners in colonial times, 105- 
112. 

Dade, Maj. Francis L., 207. 
Dakota, 279, 359. 
Dallas, battle of, 292. 
Dallas, George M., 216. 
Dartmouth College, founded, 113. 
Davis, Jefferson, at Chattanooga, 284. 

captured, 308. 

elected President of the Confederate States, 
232,, 234. 

privateers conimissioned by, 259. 

restored to liberty, 323. 
Davis, John, 41. 
Dearborn, Fort, 275. 
Dearborn, Gen. Henry, 187, 188. 
De Ayllon, T.ucas Vastpiez, 45. 
De Kalb, John, Baron, 151. 
De Leon, Ponce, 30. 
De Monts, 36. 

De Soto, Ferdinand, 31, 244-246. 
Debt, imprisonment for, 234. 
Debt, national, after Civil War, 308. 

after Rovolntionary War, 163, 164, 171. 

after Spanish War, 346, 339, 308. 

after War of 1812, 194. 

in 1804, 303. 
Debts, State, 174, 315. 



Decatur, Stephen, 181, 195. 

Dcclaratii.n ..f Independence, 131, 366, xi-xiii 

Declaration of Rights, 121. 

Delaware, 70, 78, 103, 112. 

Delaware, Lord, 53, 

Democrats, 901, 2.'<0, 328. 

Denver, settled, 3.W. 

D'Estaing, Count, 146, 147. 

Detroit, founded, 240. 

surrendered to British, 185. 
Dewey, George, 34.^. 

Diaz, Bartolcmeu, Portuguese explorer, 21. 
Dicliinson, John, 365. 
Dieskau, Baron, 96. 
Dinwiduie, Gen. Robert, 90. 
District of Columbia, 171, 224. 
Donelson, Fort, 260, 201. 
Dongan, Thomas, 74. 
Doniphan, Col. Alexander W., 217. 
Dorchester Ueii;hts, fortified, 130. 
Dorr's Rebellion, 211. 
Douglas, Stephen A., 225, 232, 251. ' 
Draft, unpopularity of, 286. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 41, 43, 246. 
Dred Si'ott decision, 230, 234. 
Diess, 10:>, 235-237. 
Dubuque, founded, 2J6. 
Dupont, Admiral, 288. 
Duquesne, Fort, 91, 93, 94. 
Dustin, Hannah, 86. 
Dutch, claims in Jsdrth America, 46, 47, 67. 

settlements, 71-74. 

Early, Gen. Jubal A., 256, 298, 299. 
Education, 112-114, 238, 363-367. 
Edward, Fort, 96, 138. 
Edwards, Jonathan, 365. 
El Caney, captured, 344. 
Electoral Commission, Joint, 324. 
Electoral Count Act, 320. 
Electors, presidential, 164, 165, 180, xx. 
Electricity, new uses of, 354. 
Elizabeth, Queen, 43. 
Elizabeth City, captured, 268. 
Elmira, battle at, 148. 
Emancipation Proclamation, 277, 279. 
Embargo Act, 1S3. 
Emerson, Raljih Waldo, 366. 
Emigration to America, 240, 854. 

Western, 239. 
Endicott, J<ihn, 61. 
England, American possessions in 1607, 47. 

American possessions in 1763, 99, lUO. 

arbitration with, 322. 

boundary disi>utes with, see Boundary. 

colonies of, 49-117. 

explorations in America, 27, 28, 40^0. 

Samoan Islands relinquished by, 348. 

Soutliern Confederacy acknowledged by,259. 

Venezuelan boundary settled, 338. 

wars with, 119-164, 184-195. 

wars with France, 86-102, 174, 181-183. 



INDEX 



liii 



Epochs of American history, 16, 17. 

Ericsson, Capt. John, 269. 

Ericsson, Leif, 16. 

Erie, Foit, 192. 

Erie Canal, opened, 202. 

Kspejo, Antonio de, 33. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 167. 

Evans, Oliver, 181. 

Ewell, Gen. R. S., 287. 

Express business, 243. 

Factories, 357. 

Kail- Oaks, battle of, 272, 273. 

Fairfield, plundered, 147. 

Farragut, David Glaseoe, 266, 267, 301. 

Federalist, 366. 

Federalists, 164, 174, 175, 195. 

Ferdinand, King, 21, 22. 

Ferguson, Gen. Patrick, 153. 

Fertilizers, use of, 355. 

Field, Cyrus W., 316. 

Filibusters, 224. 

Filipinos, 350, 351, 352. 

Fillmore, Millard, President, 223-225. 

Finances, after Revolutionary War, 171. 

crisis of 1837, 208, 209. 

crisis of 1873, 320. 

crisis of 1893, 336. 

see Money. 
Fire engine, steam, 240. 
Fires, great, 319, 320. 
Fisher, Fort, 302. 
Fishers Hill, battle of, 298. 
Fishery awai'd, 322. 
Fiske, John, 367. 
Fitch, John, 181. 
Five Forks, battle of, 306. 
Five Nations, see Iroquois. 
Flag, national, 139, 196. 
Florida, region claimed by Spain, 30, 32. 

boundary fixed, 173. 

British possession, 99, 100, 161. 

ceded to United States, 200. 
Florida, State, 246, 232, 314. 

Indian war in, 207. 
Foote, Andrew H., 264. 
Forbes, Gen. John, 94. 
Force Bill, 337. 
Forrest, Gen. N. B., 290, 293. 
Fort Astoria, Crown Point, etc., see Astoria, 

Crown Point, etc. 
France, American possessions, 39, 40, 47, 99, 
100, 178. 

explorations in America, 34-40. 

independence of United States acknowl- 
edged by, 144. 

Louisiana purchased from, 178, 244. 

Mexico trouble, 315, 316. 

Southern Confederacy acknowledged by, 259. 

Statue of Liberty presented by, 330. 

troubles with United States, 176, 208, 316. 

wars with England, 86-102, 174, 181-183. 



Franklin, Benjamin, author, 365. 

career of, 144. 

Declaration of Independe:ice, 131. 

Plan of Union, 93. 

postmaster general, 104. 
Franklin, State of, 244. 
Eraser, Gen. Simon, 141. 
Fraysers Farm, battle of, 275. 
Fredericksburg, battles of, 278, 284, 285. 
Free-soilers, 222, 223. 
Freedmen's Bureau, 314. 
FriSmont, John C, 218, 229, 272. 
French, Gen. William H., 278. 
French and Indian War, 89-102. 
Frenchtown, battle of, 188. 
Freneau, Philip, 365. 
Frobisher, Sir Martin, 41. 
Frolic, 187. 
Frontenac, Count, 87. 
Frontenac, Fort, 97. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 223, 224, 230, 231, 234. 
Fulton, Robert, 181. 

Gadsden purchase, 228. 

Gage, Gen. Thomas, 122-124, 127, 128, 130. 

Gaines Mill, battle of, 275. 

Galveston, captured, 286. 

flooded, 341. 
Gama, Vasco da, 27. 
Gardiners Island, 83. 
Garfield, James A., President, 325, 326. 
Gates, Gen. Horatio, 140-142, 151. 
Genet, Edmond C, 174. 
George IIL, 120, 128. 
Georgia, cedes land to Congress, ICl, 163. 

in colonial times, 103. 

readmitted, 314, 315. 

secedes, 232. 

settled, 84, 85. 

.Sherman's march through, 291-294. 
Germantown, battle of, 137, 138. 
Gettysburg, battle of, 286-288. 
Ghent, treaty of, 194. 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 41, 42. 
Gillraore, Gen. Q. A., 288, 289, 303. 
Gold, coinage of, 325. 

in California, 221, 222, 241, 247. 

in Colorado and Alaska, 356. 

sole standard, 325, 339. 

value, relative to silver, 336. ■ 
Golden Tlind, 41. 
Goldsboro, 305. 
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 66. 
Gortnan-Wilson Act, 337. 
Gosnold, Bartholomew, 44, 49. 
Government, colonial, 103, 104. 

of United States, 164-167. 

under Articles of Confederation, 163, 164. 
Governor, of colonies, 103, 119. 

of States, 166. 
Grand Army of the Republic, 318. 
Grand Model, the, 82. 



liv 



INDEX 



Grant, Ulysses S., at Chattanooga, 282-284. 

at Forts Henry and Douelson, 201, 262. 

atSliiloh,2G2. 

career of, 317, 319. 

in battle of Wilderness, 295. 

Lee's surrender to, 305-307. 

lieutenant general, 290, 295. 

President, 317-324. 

Kichniond canipaiv'ns, 295-297, 305, 306. 

Vicksburg campaigns, 2C6, 279, 280. 
Gray, Capt. Robert, 247. 
Great Britain, see England. 
Oreat Eastern, 316. 
Great Law, the, 77. 
Great Meadows, 91. 
Greeley, Horace, 323. 
Green Mountain Boys, 127. 
Greenback-Labor party, 326. 
Greenbacks, 30«, 311. 
Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 15G, 157. 
Greenland, 15, 16. 
Griswold, Fort, 158. 
Guam, 346, 350. 
OuerrUre, 186, 187. 
Guilford Court House, battle of, 157. 

Hail Columbia, written, 176. 
Haiti, 25, 29, 83. 
Hale, Capt. Nathan, 134. 
Halifax, N. S., 96. 
Halleck, Gen. H. W., 263, 264. 
Hamilton, Alexander, 171, 174, 180, 366. 
Hampton, Gen. Wade (the elder), 1S7, 188. 
Hampton Roads, 268-270. 
Hancock, VVinfleld S., 278, 296, 325, 326. 
Hanging Rock, battle of, 151. 
Hanover Court House, 271, 272. 
Harlem Heights, battle of, 134. 
Harpers Ferry, 231, 254. 
Harrison, Benjamin, President, 330-333. 
Harrison, William Henry, 184, 187, 188, 190, 
208. 

President, 210. 
Hartford, 301. 
Hartford, convention at, 193, 194. 

founded, 67. 
Harvard College, 112. 
Hatteras Inlet, 259. 
Havana, 29, 99, 344. 
Hawaiian Islands, 32, 337, 338, 347. 
Hawkins, Sir John, 40. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 366. 
Hayes, Rutherford B., Pi esideiit, 324-326. 
Eayne, Robert Y.,205, 206. 
Hennepin, Father, 247. 
Henry, Fort, 260, 261. 
Henry, Patrick, 120, 122, 124, 365. 
Herkimer, Gen. Nicholas, 139. 
Heesians, 128, 134, 135. 
Hispaniola, 29. 
Hobart, Garret A., 338. 
Hobson, Richmond P., 344. 



Hochelaga, 34, 36. 

Holly Springs, captured, 266. 

Holmes, Dr. Oliver Wendell, 367. 

Homestead, Pa., riot at, 333. 

Homestead Act, 319. 

Hood, Gen. John B., 292, 2.)3. 

Hooker, Gen. Joseph, 273, 277, 282-286. 

Hoi>ker, Thoma.'*, 67. 

Hopkiiison, Francis, 365. 

Horse rake, invented, 240. 

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 191. 

House of Representatives, 164, 1C5. 

Houston, Gen. Sam, 214, 246. 

Howe, Gen. William, 127, 130, 133, 134, 137 

139. 
Hudson, Capt. Henry, 46, 51. 
Huguenots, 35, 81. 
Hull, ('apt. Isaac, 187. 
Hull, Gen. William, 18.5. 
Hunter, Gen. David, 296, 298. 
Huron Indians, 36. 
Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 63, 70t 

Iberville, 39. 

Iceland, 15. 

Idaho, 359, 360, 333. 

Illinois, 245. 

Immigration, 240, 354. 

Impeachment of Johnson, 315. 

Impressment of sailors, 173, 182, 184. 

Imprisonment for debt, 237. 

Inca.s, 29. 

Indented servants, 103. 

Independence Hall, 131. 

Indiana, 245. 

Indians, 9-15. 

Black Hawk War, 207, 245. 

Cherokee War, 95. 

confederacy of Northwestern tribes, 184. 

driven from Carolina. 83. 

Florida War, 207, 208. 

in Civil War, 262. 

in French and Indian War, 94-96, 100. 

in King William's War, 86. 

in Mississipi)!, 245. 

in Northwest Territory, 172, 173. 

in Revolutionary War, 138, 139, 146-148. 

in Virginia, 55, 56. 

in War of 1812, 188, 190, 191. 

King Philip's War, 64. 

Modoc War, 320. 

Peqnot War, (58, 69, 

Pontiac's War, 100. 

Sioux wars. 279, 320, 321, 332. 
Industrial exhibitions. 321, 322, 333, 336. 353. 
Industries 114-117, 238-243,311, 312, 353-359. 
Internal improvements, 201. 
Interstate Commerce Act, 330, 373. 
Inventions, 239, 240, 354, 357. 
Iowa, 246, 279. 
Iron mines, 241, 356. 
Ironclad oath, 315. 



I'NDEX 



Iv 



Iroquois Indians, 12, 36, 37, 83, 86, 87, 148. 

Irrigation, in Western States, 355. 

Irving, Washington, 366. 

Isabella, Queen, 21, 22. 

Island No. 10, 262, 264. 

Isthmian canal, 369. 

luka, battle of, 265. 

Jackson, battle of, 280. 

Jackson, Fort, 266. 

Jackson, Gen. Andrew, at New Orleans, 194. 

Democratic leader, 201. 

in Creek War, 191. 

President, 203-208. 
Jackson (Stonewall), Gen. T. J., at Antie- 
tani, 277. 

at Bull Run, 256. 

at Chancellorsville, 285. 

at Hanover Court House, 273. 

at Harpers Ferry, 277. 

campaign against Pope, 276. 

death of, 285. 

Shenandoah campaign, 272. 
James I., 42, 44, 56. 
James II., 65, 74. 
Jamestown, 44, 45, 49, 50, 57. 
Japan, treaty with, 229. 
Jasper, Sergeant William, 130, 147. 
Jay, Chief-justice John, 173, 366. 
Jefferson, Thomas, Declaration of Independ- 
ence written by, 131. 

President, 176-183. 

Republican leader, 174. 

Secretary Department of Foreign Affairs, 
171. 

Vice President, 175. 
Jerseys, 75. 
Jesuits, the, 37. 

Johnson, Andrew, President, 312-317. 
Johnson, Col. R. M., 190, 208. 
Johnson, Gen. William, 96. 
Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, 262, 263. 
Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., at Averysboro and 
Bentonville, 304, 305. 

at Bull Run, 256. 

at Jackson, 280. 

before Atlanta, 290-292. 

career of, 290, 291. 

defends Richmond, 271, 273. 

surrender of, 308. 
Johnstown Flood, 331. 
Joint Electoral Commission, 324. 
Joliet, Louis, 38. 
Jones, Paul, 149. 
Judges, 166, 167. 
Jumonville, Coulon de, 91. 

Kameharaeha, 337. 
Kansas, 247, 225-228, 231, 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 225, 228, 247. 
Kearny, Gen. Philip, 276. 
Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 217, 218. 



Eearsarge, 300. 

Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 292. 
Kentucky, 244, 258, 264. 
Kentucky Resolutions, 183. 
Key, Francis S., 193. 
Kidd, William, 83. 
Kieft, Sir William, 72. 
Kilpatrick, Gen. Judson, 294. 
King George's War, 88, 89, 
King Philip's War, 64. 
King William's War, 86, 87. 
Kings Mountain, battle of, 153. 
Know-nothing party, 229. 
Knox, Gen. Henry, 171. 
Knoxville, 244, 284. 
Kosciusko, Gen. Thaddeus, 140. 

La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, 39, 91. 

Labor troubles, 237, 312, 325, 329, 332, 337, 355, 

370. 
Ladrones, 29, 346. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, 137, 158, 197, 236. 
Lake Champlaiu, battle of, 192. 
Lake Erie, battle of, 189. 
Lake George, battle of, 96. 
Laudonniere, Ren6 de, 35. 
Law, John, 244. 
Lawrence, burned, 281. 
Lawrence, Capt. James, 190, 191 
Laws, how made, 165, 166, .wi. 

in colonial times, 103. 
Le Boeuf , Fort, 90. 
Lee, Gen. Charles, 134, 144, 146. 
Lee, Henry, " Light-horse Harry," 151, 157. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 131. 
Lee, Gen. Robfert Edward, at Chancellors- 
ville, 284, 285. 

career of, 273. 

defends Richmond, 275, 295-297, 305, 306. 

Gettysburg campaign, 285-288. 

Maryland campaign, 276, 277. 

surrender of, 306, 307. 
Legislature, State, 166. 
Leisler, Capt. Jacob, 74. 
Letter postage, 327. 
Lewis, Meriwether, 178. 
Lewis and Clark expedition, 178, 247, 359. 
Lexington, Mass., battle of, 124, 125. 
Lexington, Mo., captured, 258. 
Liberal constructionists, 174. 
Liberal Republicans, 323. 
Liberty Bell, 131. 
Lincoln, Abraham, assassinated, 309. 

career of, 249, 251. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 277, 279. 

President, 232, 249-309. 
Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, 139, 147, 150, 159, 164. 
Line of demarcation, 28. 
Literature, 365-368. 
Livingston, Robert R., 131 
Local government, 167. 
Locke, John, 82. 



IVl 



INDEX 



Lockout, 333. 

Locofocos, 201. 

Loconiutives, steam, 243, 368. 

London Company, 44, 52. 

" Long House," the, 12. 

Long Island, Viattle of, 133. 

Longfellow, Henry W., MiC. 

Longstreet, Gen. James, 282, 284, 286, 287. 

Longstreet, William, 181. 

Lookout Mountain, ba'ttle of, 283. 

Lojiez, Narciso, executed, 224. 

Lost Mountain, battle of, 292. 

Ix)iKlon, Fort, 244. 

Loiidonn, Earl of, general, 95. 

Louishurg, 89, 93, 95, 96. 

Louisiana, region claimed l)y Prance, 39. 

ceded to Spain, 10(), 178. 

ceded to United States, 17C, 178, 190,244,300. 

north boundary determined, 200. 

slavery in, 228, 19('>, 107. 
Louisiana, State, admitted, 244. 

cane sugar produced in, 241. 

readmitted, 313, 314, 324, 325. 

secedes, 232. 

territory added to, SCO. 
Lowell, Francis C, 242. 
Lowell, James Russell, 367. 
Loyalists, 124. 
Loyola, St. Ignatius, 37. 
Lnnilicring, 117, 241, 35G. 
Ltindys Lane, battle of, 192. 
Lyman, Gen. Phineas, 96. 
Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, 258. 

McAllister, Fort, 286, 294. 
McClellan, Gen. George B., in Civil War, 256, 
257. 270-278. 

presidential nominee, 303. 
McCrea, Jane, 139. 
McCulloch, Gen. Ben, 258. 
Maedonough, Com. Thomas, 192. 
McDowell, Gen. Irvin, 256, 272. 
Mackinaw, 100. 
McKinley Act, 331. 

McKinley, William, President, 338-3.53. 
Macon, Fort, 268. 
Madison, James, 174, 183-196, 366. 

I'resident, 183-196. 
Magellan, Fernando, 29. 
Magruder, Gen. John B., 271, 286. 
Maine, 342. 

Maine, 65-67, 197, 213. 245. 
Malolos, captured, 351. 
Malvern Hill, battle of, 275. 
Miinliattan Island, 71-73. 
Manila, 29, 99, 343, 351. 
Manila Bay, Dewey's victory in, 343. 
Manners and customs in colonial times, 105- 

112. 
Manson, Gen. Mahlon D., 264. 
Manufactures, 114, 116, 195, 242, 357, 358. 
Marcy, William L., 323. 



Marietta, founded, 244. 

Mariner's compass, 19. 

Marion, Gen. Francis, ir)l, 157. 

Marquette, Father Jacques, 38, 91. 

Marthas Vineyard, 44. 

Maryes Ileiglits, 273. 

Maryland, 78-80, 103, lit. 

Mason, James M., Confederate commissioner, 

259. 
Mason, Capt. John, 69. 
Mason, John, 60. 
Mason and Di.\on's Line, 78, 79. 
Massachusetts, cedes land to Congress, 161, 
163. 

in colonial times, 103. 

in Revolutionary period, 121-124. 

religious i)ersecution in, 62, 03. 

setth^d, .'■.7-67. 

Shays's Rebellion in, 104. 
Massiichusetts Bay Colony, 01-63, 65. 
Massasoit, 61, 64. 
" Master," use of title, 2;i0. 
Mather, Cotton, 66, 305. 
Maumee, battle of the, 172, 17.'?. 
Maximilian, archdulce of Austria, 316. 
Mayflower, 58-60. 

Meade, Gen. George G., 286-28S, 295. 
Meagher, Gen. Tliomas F., 278. 
Mechanicsville, battle of, 275. 
Meigs, Fort, 188. 
Memphis, captured, 204. 
Menendcz, 32, 36. 
Merrimac, ii-onclad, 268-271. 
Merrimac, collier, 344, 345. 
Merritt, Gen. Wesley, 344. 
Mexico, French in, 315, 316. 

Spanish conquer, 29, 33. 

Texas revolts from, 246. 

treaties with, 220, 228. 

war with, 214-220. 
Miami, Fort, 100. 
Micliigan, 246, 18."., 188, 241, 320. 
Miles, CoL Dixcn .S., 277. 
Miles, Gen. Nelson A., 346. 
Mill springs, battle of, 200, 261. 
Minims, Fort, 191. 
Mining, 114, 241, 3.-)i;. 
Minnesota, 247, 279, 320. 
Mint, estal)lishcd, 171. 
Miiniit, Peter, 72. 
Minutemcn, 124. 

Missionary Kidge, battle of, 283, 284. 
Mississippi, 245, 232, 315. 
Mississippi Company, 244. 
Mississippi River, cxjilored, 31, 39. 

in Civil War, 200-267, 279, 281. 

navigation of, 171. 173, 178. 
Missouri, 245, 196, 197, 241, 258. 
Missouri Compromise, 196, 197, 228. 
Mot)ile, 245, 301. 
Modoc Indians, 320. 
Mohawk Indians, 12. 



INDEX 



Ivii 



Money, after Civil War, 311, 312. 

after Revolutionary War, 164, 171. 

changes in currency, 325, 

crisis- of 1837, 208, 209. 

crisis of 1S73, 320. 

crisis of 1893, 336. 

Gold Standard Act, 339. 

greenbacks, 308, 311, 325. 

in colonial times, 117. 

paper, 153, 154, 195, 303, 308, 311, 325. 
Monitor, 268-270. 
Monmouth, battle of, 144, 146. 
Monocacy River, battle of, 298. 
Monroe, Fort, 255, 260. 
Monroe, James, Pi-esident, 196-200. 
Monroe Doctrine, 200. 
Montana, 359, 360, 356. 
Montcalm, Marquis de, 96-99. 
Monterey, captured, 216. 
Montezumas, 29. 

Montgomery, Confederate capital, 232. 
Montgomery, Gen. Richard, 128, 129. 
Monticello, 178. 
Montreal, 35, 99, 129. 
Morals in colonial times, 105, 106. 
Moravians, 85. 

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 129, 139, 141, 156. 
Morgan, Gen. John H., 281, 282. 
Mormons, 212, 213, 360. 
Morris, Robert, 134, 135, 154, 158, 161. 
Morristown, 154. 
Morse, Samuel F. B., 212. 
Morse, Sidney Edwards, 238. 
Motley, JohnL., 367. 
Moultrie, Fort, 130. 
Moultrie, Col. William, 130. 
Mounds, 10. 

Mount Vernon, 161. 169. 
Mower, invented, 240. 
"Mr.," use of title, 106, 236. 
Murfreesboro, battle of, 265, 266. 
Muskhogean Indians, 12. 
Mutiny Act, 122. 

Napoleon I., 176, 178. 
Napoleon III., 315. 
Narragansett Indians, 64, 68, 69. 
Narvaez, P^nfilo de, 30, 31. 
Nashville, battle o', •.:y3. 
Nassau, Fort, 71. 
National banknotes, 311. 
National banks, 171, 174, 195, 311, 341. 
National convention (party), first, 206. 
National debt, see Debt, national. 
National Republicans, 201. 
National Road, 243. 
Naturalization, process of, xviii. 
Nauvoo, 212. 

Naval warfare, in Civil War, 259, 264, 266- 
270, 288-302. 

in Revolutionary War, 149, 150. 

in War of 1812, 186-191. 



Navigation Act, 56, 64, 119, 120. 

Navy, new, 327, 328. 

Nebraska, 359, 225. 

Necessity, Fort, 93. 

Negroes, enfranchisement of, 315, 319, 337. 

intimidation of, 323. 

soldiers in Civil War, 289, 290. 

see Slavery. 
Nelson, Governor Thomas, 158. 
Nevada, 309, 241. 
New Albion, 246. 
New Amsterdam, 71, 74. 
New Bruns\if]ck, 95, 213. 
New England, colonies settled, 49-85. 

in colonial times, 105-117. 

intercolonial wars, 86-102. 

United Colonies of, 63. 
New France, 34, 40. 
New Hampshire, 66, 103. 

Vernjont claimed by, 244, 
New Hampshire Grants, 127, 244. 
New Haven, 69, 63, 147. 
New Jersey, 75, 103. 

Washington's flight through, 134. 
New London, burned, 158. 
New Market, battle of, 296. 
New Mexico, conquered, 218. 

explored, 33. 

State, 375. 

Territory, 224, 228. 
New Netherland, 46, 71 ; see New York. 
New Orleans, battle of, 194. 

capture of, in Civil War, 260, 267. 

ceded to Spain, 100. 

founded, 39, 244. 
New Sweden, 76. 
Neiv York, 345. 
New York (city), British in, 160, 

draft riot in, 286. 

fire in, 209. 

growth of, 363. 

national capital, 171. 

New Amsterdam becomes, 74. 
New York (State), anti-rent difficulties, 212. 

cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. 

in colonial times, 103, 109, 110. 

New Netherland becomes, 73. 

relinquishes claim on Vermont, 244. 

settled, 47, 71-74. 
Newbern, captured, 268. 
Newfoundland, discovered, 28. 

fisheries, 93, 322. 
Newport, attack on, 146. 
Newport, Capt. Christopher, 44, 51, 
Newspapers, 113, 367. 
Newtown, battle of, 148. 
Niagara, Fort, 93, 97. 
Niagara Falls, power from, 354. 
Norfolk, in Civil War, 208, 271. 
North Carolina, 81-84, 254, 314. 

cedes land to Congress, 161, 163, 244. 
North Dakota, 359, 360. 



Iviii 



INDEX 



Northeast bonndary, 218. 
Northmen, 15, 16. 
Northwest boundary, 221, 247. 
Northwest passage to India, 84, 41, 46. 
Northwest Territory, 161, 163. 

Indian wars in, 172, 173. 

schools in, 364. 

slavery prohibited iu, 163, 280. 
Norwalk, 147. 
Nova Scotia, 95. 
Nueces River, 214. 
Nullification, 206, 308. 

Oglethorpe, James, 84, 86, 88, 80. 

Ohio, 244. 

Ohio Company, 89. 

Oliio River, discovered, 39. 

Okechobee, battle of, 208. 

Oklahoma, 332, 878. 

Old Ironsides, 186, 187. 

Olustec-, battle of, 803. 

Omnibus Bill, 224. 

Oneida Indians, 12. 

Ononda^'a Indians, 12. 

Orchard Knob, 282, 283. 

Ordinance of 1787, 163, 230, 364. 

Oregon, 345. 

Oregon, 247, 197, 221. 

boundary of, 221, 247, 322. 
Oriskany, battle of, 133. 
Orleans, Territory of, 244. 
Osceola, 207. 
Otis, Gen. Elwell S., 851. 
Otis, James, 122, 365. 
Ottawa Indians, 100. 

Pacific coast, explored, 41. 
Pacific Ocsan, discovered, 29, 30. 
Pacific railroads, 317. 
Paine, Thomas, 133. 
Pakenham, Gen. Edward II., 194. 
Palmer, John M., 338. 
Palo Alto, battle of, 215. 
Panama Canal, 369. 
Pan-American Congress, 331. 
Paris, treaties of, 99, 161, 346. 
Farkiiian, Francis, 367. 
Patent, 43. 
Patents, 854, xviii. 
Patroon estates, 72, 212. 
Patterson, Gen. Robert, 256. 
Pea Ridge, battle of, 262. 
Pemberton, Gen. John C, 280, 288. 
Peninsular campaign, 270-272. 
Peun, William. 75-78. 
Pennsylvania, 76-78, 103, 110, 113. 

mines in, 241. 

petroleum wells in, 357. 
Pennsylvania, University of, 118. 
Pensacola, 260. 
Pensions, 331, 332. 
People's party, 333 888. 



Peqnot War, 68. 

Perry, Matthew C, 229. 

Perry, Oliver H., 186, 189. 

Perryville, battle of, 2(i4, 265. 

Personal Liberty bills, 231 

Peru, 29. 

Petersburg, attacked. 296, 297. 

captured, 306. 
Petroleum, 356, 357. 
Philadelphia, 181. 
Philadelpliia, British in, 137, 144. 

Centennial Exhibition at, 321, .S22. 

Constitution.'il Convention at, 104. 

Continental Congress at, 124, 128. 

founded, 77. 

in colonial times, 103, 111. 

national capital, 171. 
Philanthropi<; institutions, 367. 
Philip, Indian chief, C4. 
Philippine Islands, American victory in, 343 

ceded to United States, 346. 

discovered, 29. 

government of, 351, 352. 

war in, 3.50, 351. 
Phips, Sir William, 87. 
Pickens, Gen. Andrew, 151. 
Pickens, Fort, 260. 
Piedmont, battle of, 296. 
Pierce, Franklin, President, 225-230. 
Pike, Gen. Z. Jl., 188. 
Pilgrims, 58-61. 
Pillow, Fort, 264, 290. 
Pinckney, Cliarles C, 176. 
Pinzon, Vicente Yanez, 26. 
Pirates, in Carol inas, 83. 

of Tripoli, 181, 195. 
Pitt, William, 95. 
Pittsliurg, labor troubles in, 32.5, 333. 

named, 95. 
Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, battle of, 262. 
Pizarro, Francisco, 29. 
Plains of Abiaham, 98. 
Plattsburg, battle of, 192. 
Pleasant Hill, battle of, 290. 
Plymoutli Colony, 60, 61, 63, 65. 
Plymouth Company, 44. 
Plymouth Roik, 60. 
Pocahontas, 51-53. 
Poe, Edgar Allan, EOG. 
Political parties, 200, 201. 
Polk, James K., President, 214-222. 
Polygamy, 213, 360. 
Ponce de Leon, 30. 
Ponliac's War, 100. 

Poor Richard's Almanac (Franklin's), 144. 
Pope, Gen. John, 264, 276. 
Population of United States, 240, 353, 364, 

362, 363. 
Port Gibson, 280. 
Port Hudson, 281. 
Port Republic, 272. 
Port Royal, N. S., 86, 87, 88. 



INDEX 



lix 



Port Royal, S. C, 259, 268. 

Porter, Commodore D. D., 302. 

Porter, Gen. Fitz John, 272. 

Porto Rico, 29, 346, 348, 350. 

Portuguese explorations, 20, 21, 26-28. 

Post office, 104, 363. 

Postage, 327. 

Potato, cultivation of, 115. 

Powhatan, 51, 55. 

Prescott, Gen. Richard, 141. 

Prescott, Col. William, 126. 

Prescott, William H., 367. 

Prfsidfiit and Little Belt, 184. 

President of United States, 165, 166, xx. 

Presidential electors, 1(,4, 1G5, xx. 

Presidential succession, ii28, 329. 

President's message, 178. 

Presque Isle, 90. 

Prevost, Gen. Augustine, 147. 

Prevost, Gen. George, 192, 193. 
Piice, Gen. Sterling, 258, 262, 265. 
Prideaux, Gen. John, 97. 
Princeton, battle of, 136. 
Princeton College, 113. 
Pring, Capt. Martin, 44. 
Printing press, first in colonies, 113. 

improvements in, 354. 
Proctor, Gen. Henry A., 188, I'JO. 
Prohibition party, 333. 
Protective tarifl^ 201, 203. 
Providence, founded, 63, 70. 
Public land, Congi-ess acquires, 161, 163, 225, 
226, 228. 
granted to Pacific railroads, 317. 
Homestead Act, 319. 
sections apportioned for schools, 364. 
Puebla, captured, 219. 
Pueblos, 10, 11. 
Pulaski, Count, 137, 147. 
Pulaski, Fort, 268. 
Puritans, 59, 62, 63. 
Putnam, Gen. Israel, 125, 133, 148. 

"Quaker guns," 270. 

Quakers, in Pennsylvania, 76, 77. 

persecuted, 56, (i3. 
Quantrell, 281. 

Quartering Act (Mutiny Act), 122. 
Quel)ec, Americans attack, 129, 130. 

British attack, 88, 93, 94, 97-99. 

British province, 100. 

settled, 36. 
Queen Anne's War, 87, 88. 
Queenstown Heights, battle of, 186. 
Quincy, Josiah, Jr., 123. 

Rahl, Colonel, 135. 
Railioads, built, 202, 243, 358. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 330. 

Pacific, 317. 

panic, 320. 

strikes, 325, 337. 



Raisin River, 188. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 42, 43. 

Randolph, Edmund, 171. 

Reaper, invented, 240. 

Reciprocity, 331. 

Reconcentrados, 342. 

Reconstruction, 313, 314, 324, 325. 

Red River expedition, 290. 

Redcoats, 124. 

Reed, Joseph, 142. 

Refrigeration of meat, 356. 

Religious toleration, 63, 71, 77, 79.. 

Reno, Col. Marcus A., 321. 

Representation, in Congress, 1G4, xv. 

Republicans (Democratic), 174, 175, 201. 

Republicans, new party, 229. 

Resaca, battle of, 291. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 215. 

Reservations, Indian, 15, 311. 

Restoration, the, 56. 

Revere, Paul, 124. 

Revolutionary War, 119-164. 

Rhode Island, 70, 71, 103. 

Dorr's Rebellion in, 211. 
Ribaut, Jean, 35, 36, 81. 
Richmond, Ky., bnttle of, 264. 
Richmond, Va., Confederate capital, 255. 

siege of, 296-298, 305, 306. 
Rittenhimse, Dr. David, 113. 
Roanoke Island, 43, 267, 268. 
Robertson, James, 244. 
Rochambeau. Count, 159. 
Rolfe, John, 53. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 345, 353, 369, 370, 377. 
Rosecrans, Gen. W. S., 256. :'65, 266, 281, 282 
Ross, Gen. Robert, 193. 
Rotation in office, 205, 323. 
Royal colonies, 103. 
Rubber, vulcanizing of, 240. 
Russia, Alaska purchased from, 316. 
Rutgers College, founded, 113. 
Ryswick, treaty of, 87. 

Sabine Crossroads, battle of, 290. 

Sacs, 207. 

St. Augustine, .32, 36, 88. 

St. .John, J. P., 328. 

St. Lawrence River, explored, 34, 36, 39. 

St. Leger, Col. Barry, 139, 140. 

St. Louis, settled. 245. 

St. Paul, settled, 247. 

St. Philip, Fort, 266. 

Salem, seltli d. 62. 

witchcraft, 65, 66. 
Salt Lake City, 213. 
Samoan Islands, 348. 
Samoset, 61. 

Sampson, William T., 344, 34.5. 
San Francisco, 221, 222, 246, 247, 379. 
San Jacinto, battle of, 246. 
San Juan, founded, 30. 
San Juan Hill, battle of, 345. 



INDEX 



San Salvador, 24. 

Sandys, Sir Edwin, 54. 

Sanitary Commission, 302, 303. 

Santa Anna, Geu. Antonio Lopez de, 216. 217, 

246. 
Santa ¥6, 33, 217. 
Santiago, battle of, 344, 34C. 
Saratoga, battles of, 140, 141. 
Savages Station, battle of, 275. 
Savanna?!, 181. 
Savannah, 85, 147, 100, 204. 
Saybrook, 68, 69. 
Schenectady massacre, 80. 
Schley, Com. Winfleld S., 344, 345. 
Schofleld, Gen. John -M., 305. 
Schools, 112-114, 238, 364. 
Schnyler, Fort, 139. 
Schuyler, Geu. Philip, 138-140. 
Scotl^ Geu. Winfleld, at Chippewa, lt2, 

in Mexican war, 217-220. 

presidential nominee, 225. 

retires, 257. 
Secession, of Southern States, 232-234, 254, 308. 

ordinanci'S of, repealed, 313. 
Sedgwick, Gen. John, 284, 285, 2U5. 
Sedition Law, 175, 17(i. 
Seminole Indians, 207, 208. 
Semmes, Capt. R., 300, 301. 
Senate, 164, 165. 
Seneca Indians, 12. 
Separatists, 69. 
Serapis, 149, 150. 
Seven Days' Battles, 275. 
Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, battle of, 272, 273. 
Seven Years' War, 91. 
Sewall, Arthur, 338. 
Seward, William H., 225, 309, 316. 
Sewing maehine, invented, 240. 
Seymour, Governor Horatio, 317. 
Seymour, Gen. Truman, 303. 
Shafter, Gen. William K., 344. 
Shays's Kcbellion, 1G4. 
Slienandoah valley, w.ar in, 272, 298, 299. 
Sheridan, Gen. Philip, at Five Forks, 306. 

at Petersl)urg, 304. 

defeats Stuart, 296. 

Shenandoah eanipaigii, 298, 299. 
Sherman, Rofier, 131. 
Sherman, Gen. W. T., at Chattanooga, 282, 283. 

at Chickasaw 151 uff, 2CC. 

Atlanta captured by, 291, 292. 

career of, 291. 

Knoxville relieved by, 284. 

march through the Carolinas, 304, 305. 

march to the sea, 293, 294. 
Shields, Gen. James, 272. 
Shiloh, battle of, 262, 263. 
Shipbuilding, 117, 243, 359. 
Shirley, Gen. William. 97. 
Shoshoneau Indians, 12. 
Sickles, Gen. Daniel E., 287. 
Sigel, Geu. Franz, 296. 



Silk, manufacture of, 358. 

production of, 116. 
Silver mines, 241, 356. 
Silver money, 325, 336, 338. 
Sioux Indians, 12, 279, 320, 321, 332. 
Slater, Samuel, 242. 
Slave trade, 40, 164, 224, xix. 
Slavery, abolished, 313, 314. 

Compromise of 1850, 224, 225. 

Constitution .iflected by, 164. 

cotton industi-y affects, 190. 

Dred Scott decision, 230. 

Emancipation I'roclaniation, 277, 279. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 224,230, 231, 234. 

in colonial times, 103, 111, 112, 116. 

introduction of, 65. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 225, 226. 

Missouri Compromise, 196, 197. 

proliibited in Northwest Territory, 163 

Wilmot Pr(jviso, 221. 
Sleeping cars, 3.54. 
Slemmer, Lieut. A. J., 260. 
Slidell, John, 259. 
Sloat, Com. John D., 218. 
Smith, Gen. E. Kirliy, 256, 264, 265. 
Smith, ('apt. John, 50-52, 57, 58. 
Smith, Joseph, 212. 
Snelling, Fort, 247. 
Social conditions, before Civil War, 235-238 

in colonial days, 102-114. 
Solis, Juan Diaz de, 26. 
" Sous of Liberty," 121. 
Soo Canal, 358. 

South American republics, 200. 
South Carolina, 81-84. 

cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. 

Nullifloatiou Ordinance passed, 205. 

readmitted, 314, 324, 325. 

secedes, 232. 
South Dak(Jta, 359, 360. 
South Mountain, battle of, 277. 
Spain, claims in North America, 33, 34, 47. 

explorations, 24-26, 28 34. 

Florida boundary fixed, 173. 

Florida purchase<l fiom, 200, 246. 

Mississippi navigation secured to United 
States, 173. 

war with, 341-346. 
" Spanish War," 88. 
Specie circular, 209. 
Specie payments, 209, 32.5. 
Spoils system, 323, 205. 
Spottsylvania Court House, 295, 296. 
Squatter sovereignty, 225, 234. 
Stagecoaches, 104, 202. 
Stamp Act, 120-122. 
Standish, Miles, 61. 
Stanwix, Fort, 139. 
Slar-Span'jled Banner, written, 193. 
Stark, Gen. John, 140. 
"Starving Time," .52. 
State banks, 195, 206, 207, 311. 



INDEX 



Ixi 



state constitutions, 166. 

State debts, 174, 315. 

State Riglits, 183, 205, 232, 308. 

Statue of Liberty, 329, 330. 

Steamboats, 181, 242, 359. 

Stedman, Fort, 306. 

Steel, use of, 358. 

Steele, Mrs. Elizabeth, 157. 

Steele, John, 67. 

Stephens, Alexander H., 206, 234. 

Stephenson, Fort, 188. 

Steuben, Baron von, 143. 

Stevens, Gen. Isaac I., 276. 

Stevens, Jolin, 181. 

Stevenson, Adiai E., 353. 

Stirling, Gen. William Alexander, Lord, 137. 

Stockton, Com. Robert F., 218. 

Stonenian, Gen. George, 304. 

Stonington, bombarded, 193. 

Stony Point, captured, 148. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 231. 

Strict constructionists, 174. 

Strikes, 237, 355, 370. 

at Homestead, 332. 

railroad, 325, 32!», 337. 
Stuart, Gen. .1. E. B., 273, 296. 
Stuyvesant, Peter, 72. 
Subtreasury Bill, 209. 
Sullivan, Gen. John, 137, 146, 148. 
Sumner, Senator Charks, 228. 
Sumner, Gen. Edwin V., 273. 
Sumptuary laws, 236. 
Sumter, Fort, 234, 251, 254, 288, 289. 
Sumter, Gen. Thomas, 151, 157. 
Supreme Court, 166, 167, xxi. 
Swansea, 64. 
Swedes, settlements of, 72, 76. 

Taft, William H., 351, 374. 

Taney, Roger B., 230. 

Tariff, "American System," 201, 202. 

after Civil AVar, 312. 

Clay compromise, 206. 

Gorman-Wilson Act, 337. 

McKinley Act, 331, 341. 

of 1897, 339. 
Tarleton, Sir Banastre, 150, 156. 
Taxation, for national debt, 171, 172. 

for Spanish War, 346. 

in colonies, 102, 103, 119-124. 
Taylor, Gen. Dick, 290. 

Taylor, Gen. Zachary, in Mexican war, 215, 
216. 

President, 222, 223. 

Seminole Indians defeated by, 208. 
Tea, tax on, 122, 123. 
Tecumseh, 184, 185, 188, 190, 191. 
Telegraph, 212, 316, 358. 
Telephone, 354, 358. 
Tennessee, 244, 254, 313, 314. 
Tenure of Office Act, 314. 
Terry, Gen. Alfred H., 302, 305, 320. 



Texas, admitted, 246, 222, 228. 

annexed, 214, 360. 

land purchased from, 224. 

petroleum wells in, 357. 

readmitted, 315. 

secedes, 232. 

Spain acquires, 200. 
Thames, battle of the, 190. 
Thomas, Gen. George H., at Chickamaugaj 
282. 

at Mill Springs, 261. 

at Murfreesboro, 265. 

at Nashville, 293. 
Thorwaldsen, Albert, 16. 
Ticonderoga, Fort, 93, 96, 128, 133. 
Tilden, Samuel J., 323. 
Tippecanoe, battle of, 184. 
Tobacco, cultivation of, 54, 115, 355. 

introduced into England, 43. 
Toleration, 63, 71, 77, 79. 
Tonty, Chevalier de, 245. 
Tories, 124. 
Town meeting, 104. 
Townshend Acts, 122. 
Trade, see Commerce. 
Trades unions, 237, 312, 355. 
Transportation, 117, 202, 242, 358. 
Travel, 104, 105, 202, 303. 
Trent affair, 259. 
Trenton, battle of, 135, 136. 
Tripoli, 181, 195. 
Truck farming, 355. 
Trumbull, John, £65, 
Trusts, 355. 
Tunis, 195. 

Tuscarora Indians, 83. 
Tutuila, 347, 348, 350. 
Twiller, Wouter van, 72. 
Tyler, John, President, 210-214. 
Typesetting machines, 354. 
Typewriter, 354. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, 231. 

" Underground Railroad," 231. 

Union party, 232. 

United Colonies of New England, 63 

United States Bank, 174, 195, 206. 

United States notes, 308, 311. 

Utah, 360, 213, 224. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 95. 

Valley Forge, 143. 
Van Buren, Martin, 208-210, 222. 
Van Dorn, Gen. Earl, 262, 265, 266. 
Van Rensselaer, Gen. Stephen, 186= 
Van Twiller, Wouter, 72. 
Vancouver, Fort, 247. 
Vancouver Island, 322. 
Velasquez, Diego de, 29. 
Venango, Fort, 90. 
Venezuela, boundary of, 338. 
Vera Cruz, battle of, 218, 219. 



Ixii 



INDEX 



Vermont, 244. 

VeiTiizano, Giovanni de, 34, 36. 

Vesputins, Aniericus, 26-28. 

Vestilmle cars, 354. 

Vice President, election of, 165. 

Vicksburg, 266, 279-281. 

Vincennes, captured, 149. 

Virijiiiia, 268. 

Virginia, 49-57, 103. 

cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. 

in Revolutionary period, 120, 124. 

named, 43. 

readmitted, 313, 315. 

secedes, 254. 
Virginia Resolutions, 183. 
Voters, (iiiulitlcations of, 107, 316. 
Voting, ballot reform, 332. 
Voting machines, 354. 

Wagner, Fort, 289. 
Walioo Swamp, 207. 
Wake Island, acquired, 348. 
Wallace, Oen. Lewis, 29;). 
Walton, Col. .lohn B., 278. 
War, Civil, 249-308. 

Indian, see Indians. 

intercolonial, 86-102. 

Mexican, 214-220. 

of 1812, 184-195. 

Revolutionary, 119-164 

with Spain, 341-340. 

with Tripoli, 181, 195. 
Wani, Gen. Artemas, 126. 
Warren, Gen. G. K., 287. 
Warren, Gen. Joseph, 127. 
Washington (city), 171, 172, 19S. 

in Civil War, 272, 276, 298. 

treaty of, 322. 
Washington (State), 859, 360, 247. 
Washington, Foit, 134. 
Washington, Georjie, at Boston, 130. 

at Gerraantown, 137. 

at Monmouth, 144, 146. 

at New York, 133. 

at Princeton, 136. 

at Trenton, 135. 

at Valley Forge, 143. 

at Yorktown, 158. 

commander in chief, 128, 176. 

in French and Indian War, 90-94. 

influence after the Revolution, 160, 161. 

President, 105, 169-17.''). 

president Constitutional Convention, 164. 

retreat through New .Jersey, 134. 
Washington, Col. William A., 156. 
Wasp, 187. 
Watling Island, 24. 
Watson, Thomas E., 338. 



Waxhaw Creek, battle of, 1.50. 

Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 137, 148, 172, 17a 

Weaver, James B., 326, 333. 

Webster, Daniel, 223, 224, 206, 213. 

Webster, Noah, 238. 

Weldon Railroad, 298. 

West India Company, 71. 

West Indies, 24, 2.5, 33, 344. 

West Point, 154. 

West Virginia, 309, 255. 

" VVestern Reserve," 183. 

Weyler, General, 342. 

Whig party, 201, 229. 

Whigs, in Revolution, 124. 

Whisky Rel>ellion, 172. 

White Plains, battle of, 134. 

Whitefleld, George, 85. 

Whitney, Eli, 172. 

Whittier, John G.. 367. 

WildeiiH'Ss, 285. 

battle of the, 294, 205. 
Wilkinscm, Gen. James, 188. 
William and Mary Colltge, 113. 
William Henry, Foit, 06. 
Williams, Roger, settles Providence, 63, 68, 7C. 
Wjlliamsliurg, battle of. 271. 
Wilmington, Del., settled, 76. 
Wilniot Proviso, 210, 221, 2.S4. 
Wilson, Gen. James II., .304. 
Wilson, Woodrow. 37T. 
Wilson (or (iorinan-Wilson) Act, 'HI. 
Wilson's Creek, battle of, 258. 
Winchester, battle of, 298. 
Winchester, Gen. James, 188. 
Windsor, settled, 07. 
Winslow, Capt. J. A., 300, 801. 
Winthrop, John, 02 ; the younger, 68. 
Wisconsin, 240, 320. 
Wolfe, Gen. James, 96-99. 
Woman sutrrage, 370. 
Wordeii, Lieut. John L., 270. 
World's Columbian Expositiop, 333, 336 
Wounded Knee, battle of, 332. 
Wright, Gen. Horatio G., 299. 
Wright, Silas, 225. 
Writs of .Assistance, 120. 
Wyoming, 359, 360. 
Wyoming massacre, 146, 147. 

Yale College, founded, 112. 
Yeardley, Governor George, 53. 
York, burned, 188. 
York, Duke of, 73-75. 
Yorktown, sieges of, 158, 159, 271. 
Young, Biigham, 213. 

Zollicoffer, Oen. Felix K., 261. 
Zook, Col. Samuel K., 278. 



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^ In the First and Second Books the amount of work that 
may be accomplished in a half year is taken as the unit of 
classification, and the various subjects are treated topicallv, 
each being preceded by a brief resume of the concepts 
already acquired. In the Third Book the purely topical 
method is used in order to give the pupil a coherent 
knowledge of each subject. The Complete Book covers 
the work usually given to pupils during the last four years 
of school. 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



(57^ 



MAY 9 1913 



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